Timeline
Timeline
1900 B.C.- Indo-Europeans filter into Greece, replacing older Cretan civilization
1300 B.C.- Greece started to being referred to as such
800 B.C.-700 A.D.- Great world religions came into being
500-300 B.C.- Creative era of Classical Greek Civilizations: Plato, Aristotle
500 B.C.-500 A.D.- Classical Greek & Roman civilizations
356-323 B.C. Alexander the Great
146 B.C.- Roman Republic conquers Greece
45-31 B.C.- Roman Republic evolves into the Roman Empire
31 B.C.-476 A.D.- Roman Empire
26-29 A.D. (c.)- Jesus is active in Palestine; beginnings of Christianity
67 A.D. (c.)- Paul & Peter martyred
306-337 A.D.- Roman Emperor Constantine: toleration of Christianity
330- Constantine founds Constantinople (formerly Byzantium)
410- Rome plundered by “heathen barbarians”
420 (c.)- St. Augustine writes “City of God”
450 (c.)- Huns cut through central Europe and France
476- End of Roman Empire in the West
Byzantine Empire & Latin Christendom become 2 of 3 “Great Civilizations”
450-750- Roman Catholic Church gains converts and influence in Western Europe
480-543- St. Benedict
500-1500- Middle Ages (Dark Ages sub-period)
570 (c.)- Prophet Muhammad born
610-632- Prophet Muhammad teaches the new religion of Islam
635-720- Islam spreads across Middle East, North Africa, and Spain
Arabic World becomes 1 of 3 “Great Civilizations”
732- Muslims in central Europe stopped by Christian and Frankish army at Tours/ Helps to define European boundaries & allows expansion of Europe
800- Coronation of Emperor Charlemagne; the Carolingian Empire
962- German King crowned emperor: Holy Roman Empire proclaimed
987- Hugh Capet chosen as French King: descendants occupied throne until French Revolution
1000 (c.)- Entity called Europe had come into existence
1000-1200- Improvements in European agriculture and rise of towns
Barbarian raids over
1054- Schism of Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox Eastern Church
1066- England conquered by William, Duke of Normandy: Normans impose feudalism
1095-1099- First Christian Crusade in Palestine
1100-1200- Arabic and Greek science enters European Culture
1147-1221- Second through Fifth Christian Crusades
1198-1216- Pope Innocent III: height of medieval Papacy: dream of unified European Christian Empire almost realized. Church receiving tithes & involved in
royalty all over Europe
1100-1300- Development of Universities and Scholasticism
1215- Magna Carta
Innocent III calls great Church council- ends barbarianism, defines sacraments
1240 (c.)- Mongol invasion & conquest of Russia, now under Asian domination for 250 yrs.
1267-1273- Thomas Aquinas writes the “Summa Theologica”
1309-1378- “Babylonian Captivity”: Papacy in Avignon
1337-1453- Hundred Years’ War between England and France
1348-1350- Black Death decimates European population
1350-1500 (c.)- Renaissance Humanism & Art
1378-1417- Schism of Roman Catholic Church: Popes in Avignon and Rome
1431- Joan of Arc burned @ the stake
1438- Pragmatic Sanction of France gives considerable freedom to French Church
1450-1485- War of the Roses
1450-1650- Russia loose medley of people distinguished by their language. Two centuries spent in slow and steady expansion.
1452-1806- Habsburg rule Holy Roman Empire (w/ one generational exception)
1454- Johann Gutenberg begins printing books with movable type
1461-1483- Louis XI of France (introduction of the “New Monarchs”)
1466-1536- Erasmus of Rotterdam
1469- Isabella of Castile & Ferdinand of Aragon marry; form Spain
1480- Grand Duke of Muscovy (Russia) Ivan III throws off Mongol domination/ceases tribute
1485-1603- Reign of the Tudors (introduction of the “New Monarchs”)
1494- French invasion of Italy destroys independence of city-states
1500-1700- Eastern Europe- peasant mass increasingly loses its freedoms
1500-1900- Europe created most powerful combination of political, military, economic, technological, and scientific apparatus ever seen.
1513- Niccolo Machiavelli writes “The Prince:
1517- Martin Luther posts his “95 theses”; beginning of Protestant Reformation
1519-1522- Ferdinand Magellan circumnavigates the globe
1529- Ottoman Empire about broke into Germany; Hungary spent much of the next century plus as a battleground
1533-1584- Ivan the Terrible, first grand duke of Muscovy to assume title of tsar
1536- John Calvin publishes “Institutes of the Christian Religion”
1545-1563- Roman Catholic Council meets at Trent; promotes Catholic reforms
1552- Ivan the Terrible conquers Kazan from Tarters for Russia, part of expansionist policy.
1555- Peace of Augsburg recognizes Protestant & Catholic states in Germany
1556-1598- Reign of King Philip II in Spain
1559- King Henry II of France dies/ leaves behind Catherine de’ Medici & three young sons
1562-1598- Wars of Religion & civil wars in France
1565- “Manila Galleons” open Spanish trade routes between Asia and America
1566- Revolt against Spanish control begins in the Netherlands
1579/1581- Union of Utrecht/ formally declare independence Dutch Republic called Holland
1588- Spanish Armada is destroyed off the coast of England and Scotland
1598- King Henry IV issues Edict of Nantes; grants religious rights to French Protestants
1603- James I succeeds Elizabeth I in England
1604-1613- Time of Troubles in Russia (factions/civil war); 1613 national assembly, hoping to settle troubles, elects Michael Romanov (related to old line of Ivan
the Terrible) tsar, thus establishing Romanov dynasty which rules until 1917. Early Romanov set up as absolute monarchs to avoid
disintegration they were witnessing of Poland/HRE.
1609- Twelve Year’ Truce between Dutch (north) and Spanish Netherlands (south)
1611-1718- Sweden had amazing victories & almost managed to form an Empire in central and Eastern Europe. Eventually crushed by the Russians.
1618-1648- The Thirty Years’ War in Germany
1618-1625- Bohemian phase
1625-1629- Danish phase
1630-1635- Swedish phase
1635-1648- Swedish-French phase
1618- Elector of Brandenburg inherited duchy of Prussia
1625- Charles I succeeds James I, his father, in England
1640-1688- Frederick William, the Great Elector, develops state and military power in Prussia
1640-1660- “Long Parliament” in England
1642-1648- Civil War in England
1648- Peace of Westphalia recognizes system of sovereign European states, renews terms of Peace of Augsburg (1555)
The Fronde in France- abortive revolution led by parliaments and nobility
1649- Pride’s Purge
Execution of King Charles I in London
1649-1658- Oliver Cromwell leads the English “Commonwealth” and “Protectorate”
Mid 17th century- Eastern Europe divided into three weak empires; see below
1660- Restoration of English monarchy, King Charles II
1661- King Louis XIV takes personal control of French government; reign continues to 1715
1663- Ottoman Empire begins new phase of expansion in Central Europe
1667-1671- Stephen Razin leads rebellion of rural population in Russia to protest growing movement of serfdom towards something like slavery
1672- William of Orange elected stadholder/king of Dutch Republic
1673- Test Act passed in England/ Barred Catholics from government/army/navy
1682-1725- Tsar Peter the Great, rapid Europeanization of Russia
1683- Ottoman imperial army is forced to abandon siege of Vienna
1685- Revocation of Edict of Nantes; persecution of French Protestants
James II succeeds Charles II in England; ignores Test Act, supports absolutism
1688- “Glorious Revolution” brings William of Orange and Mary to English throne and strengthens power of Parliament
1698-1725- Tsar Peter the Great introduces “westernizing” reforms in Russia
1699- Peace of Karlowitz- Turks yield Transylvania, Croatia, & most of Hungary to Habsburg; Ottoman Empire pushed permanently into Romania & the Balkans
1700-1721- Great Northern War (Russia), Sweden imperialism was now over. Peace confirmed by treaty of Nystadt in 1721.
1701- Frederick III, elector of Brandenburg, negotiates recognition of himself, by emperor, as King Frederick I of Prussia
1702-1713- War of Spanish Succession; “balance of power” limits French expansion
1707- United Kingdom of Great Britain formed (Scotland joins England)
1711-1740- Habsburg Charles VI builds the Austrian Empire
1713- Habsburg Charles VI issues Pragmatic Sanction with goal of holding “Austria” together after his death
1713-1740- Frederick William I expands the army and wealth of the Prussian state
1713- Peace of Utrecht- portioned Spain, left England & France as two major powers
1740- Frederick II (the Great) becomes King of Prussia, inheriting a giant army & war chest of 7 million thalers.
1900 B.C.- Indo-Europeans filter into Greece, replacing older Cretan civilization
1300 B.C.- Greece started to being referred to as such
800 B.C.-700 A.D.- Great world religions came into being
500-300 B.C.- Creative era of Classical Greek Civilizations: Plato, Aristotle
500 B.C.-500 A.D.- Classical Greek & Roman civilizations
356-323 B.C. Alexander the Great
146 B.C.- Roman Republic conquers Greece
45-31 B.C.- Roman Republic evolves into the Roman Empire
31 B.C.-476 A.D.- Roman Empire
26-29 A.D. (c)- Jesus is active in Palestine; beginnings of Christianity
67 A.D. (c)- Paul & Peter martyred
306-337 A.D.- Roman Emperor Constantine: toleration of Christianity
330- Constantine founds Constantinople (formerly Byzantium)
410- Rome plundered by “heathen barbarians”
420 (c)- St. Augustine writes “City of God”
450 (c)- Huns cut through central Europe and France
476- End of Roman Empire in the West
Byzantine Empire & Latin Christendom become 2 of 3 “Great Civilizations”
450-750- Roman Catholic Church gains converts and influence in Western Europe
480-543- St. Benedict
500-1500- Middle Ages (Dark Ages sub-period)
570 (c)- Prophet Muhammad born
610-632- Prophet Muhammad teaches the new religion of Islam
635-720- Islam spreads across Middle East, North Africa, and Spain
Arabic World becomes 1 of 3 “Great Civilizations”
732- Muslims in central Europe stopped by Christian and Frankish army at Tours/
Helps to define European boundaries & allows expansion of Europe
800- Coronation of Emperor Charlemagne; the Carolingian Empire
962- German King crowned emperor: Holy Roman Empire proclaimed
987- Hugh Capet chosen as French King: descendants occupied throne until French Revolution
1000 (c)- Entity called Europe had come into existence
1000-1200- Improvements in European agriculture and rise of towns
Barbarian raids over
1054- Schism of Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox Eastern Church
1066- England conquered by William, Duke of Normandy: Normans impose feudalism
1095-1099- First Christian Crusade in Palestine
1100-1200- Arabic and Greek science enters European Culture
1147-1221- Second through Fifth Christian Crusades
1198-1216- Pope Innocent III: height of medieval Papacy: dream of unified European Christian
Empire almost realized. Church receiving tithes & involved in royalty all over Europe
1100-1300- Development of Universities and Scholasticism
1215- Magna Carta
Innocent III calls great Church council- ends barbarianism, defines sacraments
1240 (c)- Mongol invasion & conquest of Russia, now under Asian domination for 250 yrs.
1267-1273- Thomas Aquinas writes the “Summa Theologica”
1309-1378- “Babylonian Captivity”: Papacy in Avignon
1337-1453- Hundred Years’ War between England and France
1348-1350- Black Death decimates European population
1350-1500 (c)- Renaissance Humanism & Art
1378-1417- Schism of Roman Catholic Church: Popes in Avignon and Rome
1431- Joan of Arc burned @ the stake
1438- Pragmatic Sanction of France gives considerable freedom to French Church
1450-1485- War of the Roses
1450-1650- Russia loose medley of people distinguished by their language. Two centuries
spent in slow and steady expansion.
Approx. 1450-1650- Period when fear of witches was at its height.
1452-1519- Leonardo da Vinci- universal genius of the Italian Renaissance. However, known as
painter; in history of science, he is isolated genius who didn’t publish his works
1452-1806- Habsburg rule Holy Roman Empire (w/ one generational exception)
1454- Johann Gutenberg begins printing books with movable type
1461-1483- Louis XI of France (introduction of the “New Monarchs”)
1466-1536- Erasmus of Rotterdam
1469- Isabella of Castile & Ferdinand of Aragon marry; form Spain
1469-1527- Niccolo Machiavelli, Renaissance Italian. Political theory
1473-1543- Nicholas Copernicus. Held that the sun to be the center of the solar system & whole
universe; earth was simply revolving around it. He gave mathematical demonstration.
1480- Grand Duke of Muscovy (Russia) Ivan III throws off Mongol domination/ceases tribute
1485-1603- Reign of the Tudors (introduction of the “New Monarchs”)
1494- French invasion of Italy destroys independence of city-states
16th century- Pope Gregory XIII introduces Gregorian calendar, system of common dating.
Gradually accepted & replaced Julian- England in 1752, Russia in 1918
1500-1700- Eastern Europe- peasant mass increasingly loses its freedoms
1500-1900- Europe created most powerful combination of political, military, economic,
technological, and scientific apparatus ever seen.
1513- Niccolo Machiavelli writes “The Prince:
1517- Martin Luther posts his “95 theses”; beginning of Protestant Reformation
1519-1522- Ferdinand Magellan circumnavigates the globe
1529- Ottoman Empire about broke into Germany; Hungary spent much of the next century plus
as a battleground
1533-1584- Ivan the Terrible, first grand duke of Muscovy to assume title of tsar
1536- John Calvin publishes “Institutes of the Christian Religion”
1543- Publication of Copernicus’s “On the Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs” &
Vesalius’s “The Structure of the Human Body”
1545-1563- Roman Catholic Council meets at Trent; promotes Catholic reforms
1552- Ivan the Terrible conquers Kazan from Tarters for Russia, part of expansionist policy.
1555- Peace of Augsburg recognizes Protestant & Catholic states in Germany
1556-1598- Reign of King Philip II in Spain
1559- King Henry II of France dies/ leaves behind Catherine de’ Medici & three young sons
1561-1626- Francis Bacon- Englishman. Rejected earlier scholarship as worthless, became herald/philosopher of a scientific view. Published “Novum Organum” (new method of
acquiring knowledge) in 1620; “The Advancement of Learning” in 1623; “The New Atlantis” in 1627. Baconian tradition- fact that knowledge could be used for practical purposes became a sign or proof that it was true knowledge. Failed to understand role
of mathematics, and had limited influence during his life.
1562-1598- Wars of Religion & civil wars in France
1564-1642- Galileo. Proved two objects will fall at the same rate when difference for air
resistance accounted for. Used telescope to prove moon was made of matter, not light.
Developed extensive laws on the motion of bodies.
1565- “Manila Galleons” open Spanish trade routes between Asia and America
1566- Revolt against Spanish control begins in the Netherlands
1571-1630- Johannes Kepler. Discovered orbits of the planets were ellipses. Showed cosmic
mathematical relationship between space & time; described movements planets precisely.
1579/1581- Union of Utrecht/ formally declare independence Dutch Republic called Holland
1588- Spanish Armada is destroyed off the coast of England and Scotland
1588-1679- Thomas Hobbes. Philosophically justified absolutism. Concluded humans have no
capacity for self-government
1596-1650- Rene Descartes- Frenchman. Rejected earlier scholarship as worthless, became herald/philosopher of a scientific view. Great mathematician. Inventor of coordinate geometry. Created general belief that vast world of nature could be reduced to mathematical form & advanced principle of systematic doubt.
1598- King Henry IV issues Edict of Nantes; grants religious rights to French Protestants
17th century- has been called the century of genius. Age when science became “modern.”
Science applied to other areas (ex: industry) & became popularized.
1603- James I succeeds Elizabeth I in England
1604-1613- Time of Troubles in Russia (factions/civil war); 1613 national assembly, hoping
to settle troubles, elects Michael Romanov (related to old line of Ivan the Terrible) tsar,
thus establishing Romanov dynasty which rules until 1917. Early Romanov set up as
absolute monarchs to avoid disintegration they were witnessing of Poland/HRE.
1609- Twelve Year’ Truce between Dutch (north) and Spanish Netherlands (south)
Galileo builds a telescope
1619- First enslaved Africans arrive in Virginia
1611-1718- Sweden had amazing victories & almost managed to form an Empire in central
and Eastern Europe. Eventually crushed by the Russians.
1618-1648- The Thirty Years’ War in Germany
1618-1625- Bohemian phase
1625-1629- Danish phase
1630-1635- Swedish phase
1635-1648- Swedish-French phase
1618- Elector of Brandenburg inherited duchy of Prussia
1619- First enslaved Africans arrive in Virginia
1620-1627- Francis Bacon argues for inductive method and empirical method, the founding of
knowledge on observation and experience.
1625- Charles I succeeds James I, his father, in England
1632-1704- John Locke, Englishman. Summarized many intellectual trends of his lifetime and
exerted influence for next 100 years. Combined practical experience and theoretical
interests in a philosophy that dwelled on merits of common sense. Believed in constitutionalism; right to life, liberty, & property
1637- Rene Descartes publishes “Discourse on Method”
1640-1688- Frederick William, the Great Elector, develops state and military power in Prussia
1640-1660- “Long Parliament” in England
1642-1648- Civil War in England
1642-1727- Isaac Newton- first modern scientific synthesis, or coherent theory of the physical
universe, presented. Combined Kepler & Galileo to prove universal gravitation. Invented
calculus.
1648- Peace of Westphalia recognizes system of sovereign European states, renews terms of
Peace of Augsburg (1555)
The Fronde in France- abortive revolution led by parliaments and nobility
1649- Pride’s Purge
Execution of King Charles I in London
1649-1658- Oliver Cromwell leads the English “Commonwealth” and “Protectorate”
Mid 17th century- Eastern Europe divided into three weak empires; see bottom
1651- Thomas Hobbes publishes “Leviathan” (government must be a type of Leviathan, an
absolute ruler with all power to control people’s brute instincts).
1660- Restoration of English monarchy, King Charles II
1661- King Louis XIV takes personal control of French government; reign continues to 1715
1662- Royal Society is founded in London, dedicated to pursuit of natural/scientific knowledge
1663- Ottoman Empire begins new phase of expansion in Central Europe
1666- Royal Academy of Sciences founded in Paris
1667-1671- Stephen Razin leads rebellion of rural population in Russia to protest growing
movement of serfdom towards something like slavery
1672- William of Orange elected stadholder/king of Dutch Republic
1673- Test Act passed in England/ Barred Catholics from government/army/navy
1678- French priest Richard Simon publishes “Critical History of the Old Testament,”
pioneering work on Biblical (textual) criticism
1681- French Benedict monk Jean Mabillon publishes “On Diplomatics”, established science of
paleography (deciphering, dating, authenticating manuscripts)
1682-1725- Tsar Peter the Great, rapid Europeanization of Russia
1683- Ottoman imperial army is forced to abandon siege of Vienna
1685- Revocation of Edict of Nantes; persecution of French Protestants
James II succeeds Charles II in England; ignores Test Act, supports absolutism
1687- Isaac Newton publishes “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”- shows all
motion, on earth and space, could be timed & measured w/ same mathematical formulas.
1688- “Glorious Revolution” brings William of Orange and Mary to English throne and strengthens power of Parliament. Landowning class, now with increased power, source
of Agricultural Revolution, thus helped usher in Industrial Revolution
1689-1755- Philosophe Montesquieu- believed governments varied according to climate &
circumstance. Supported for France power divided between the king and a great many
“intermediate bodies”
1690- John Locke publishes “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” & “Two Treatises on
Government”- decided true or certain knowledge is derived from experience
1694-1755- Philosophe Voltaire- preached the cause of religious toleration. First to present
a purely secular conception of world history. No strong religious theory, enlightened
or rational despotism.
1697- Pierre Bayle publishes “Historical Critical Dictionary”- tremendous repository of
miscellaneous lore; remained reservoir of knowledge for skeptical writers for generations
1698-1725- Tsar Peter the Great introduces “westernizing” reforms in Russia
1699- Peace of Karlowitz- Turks yield Transylvania, Croatia, & most of Hungary to Habsburg;
Ottoman Empire pushed permanently into Romania & the Balkans
1700-1721- Great Northern War (Russia), Sweden imperialism was now over. Peace confirmed
by treaty of Nystadt in 1721.
1701- Frederick III, elector of Brandenburg, negotiates recognition of himself, by emperor,
as King Frederick I of Prussia
1702- English crown passes to Anne, following death of William
1702-1713- War of Spanish Succession; “balance of power” limits French expansion
1707- United Kingdom of Great Britain formed (Scotland joins England)
1711-1740- Habsburg Charles VI builds the Austrian Empire
1712-1778- Philosophe Jean-Jacques Rousseau- pathetically and painfully maladjusted, possibly
paranoid. Despite this, possibly most profound writer of the age & most permanently
influential. Gave impression that impulse is more reliable than considered judgment.
Prophet of both democracy and nationalism.
1713- Habsburg Charles VI issues Pragmatic Sanction with goal of holding “Austria” together
after his death
1713-1740- Frederick William I expands the army and wealth of the Prussian state
1713- Peace of Utrecht- portioned Spain, left England & France as two major powers
In France, the new king was a child, Louis XV, great-grandson of Louis XIV, and only five when his reign began in 1715. Government entrusted to regent, Duke of Orleans, with nobles now reappearing in government. The old parlements, especially Parlement of Paris, vigorously reasserted themselves. After the “bubble,” governed by statesman, Cardinal Fleury, when regent was forced to resign.
In England, Parliament and aristocracy more competent than that of France. Bluntly speaking, Parliament was corrupt, slow, and expensive, but also effective. Queen Anne, last reigning Stuart, died in 1714, and succeeded by George I, Elector of Hanover, as provided for in the Act of Settlement of 1701. With no English and little popularity, he allowed Parliament to gain considerable independence & power. Robert Walpole managed to hold things together after bubble & government paid debt. Walpole been referred to as the first prime minister and architect of cabinet government.
1715- The “pretender” James III, supported by Jacobites, lands in Scotland and declares war on
King George I. The revolt petered out.
1720- The “Mississippi Bubble” in France & “South Sea Bubble” in
1727- England- George II succeeds George I
1733- Voltaire publishes “Philosophical Letters on the English”- popularized new scientific ideas
1740- Frederick II (the Great) becomes King of Prussia, inheriting a giant army & war chest
1740-1748- War of Austrian Succession in Europe *see bottom
1740-1780- Queen Maria Theresa rules and expands the Austrian Empire
1740-1786- Frederick II (the Great) rules and expands the Kingdom of Prussia
1741- Montesquieu publishes “The Spirit of Laws”- two principle ideas on government
Russia- After Peter the Great died in 1725, rival factions put a series of a tsars, tsarinas,
and short-lived governments on throne. Palace Revolution in 1741 brings
Peter’s daughter Elizabeth to power for 21 years, during which military power
was expanded & she entered into European diplomacy. After her death, again
upheaval until Empress Catherine II (the Great) in 1762.
1745- The “Young Pretender,” Prince Charlie” lands in Scotland and proclaims rebellion.
Crushed by Hanoverian regiments brought in from Germany; result: Scottish Highlands
wiped out, clans broken up, land reorganized.
1745- Maria Theresa Habsburg gets her husband elected Holy Roman Emperor Francis I.
1751-1772- Publication of the “Encyclopedia” in Paris
1753- Jean-Jacques Rousseau publishes “Origin of Inequality Among Men”- argued life in a
“state of nature” would be better
1756-1763- The Seven Years’ War; expansion of British power in India & America *see bottom
1762- Rousseau publishes “The Social Contract” & “Emile”- now held that good people could be
produced only be an improved society/ novel
1762-1796- Tsarina Catherine the Great reigns as “enlightened despot” in Russia- territorially,
one of main builders of modern Russia
1764- America- “Sugar” Act passed.
1765- America- “Stamp” Act passed
1767- America- English pass Townshend duties
1769- Emergence of Reform Movement in British Parliament
1772- Prussia, Austria, and Russia impose the First Partition of Poland
1773- Emelian Pugachev leads in a rebellion of the lower classes in Russia, resulting in
enlightened Catherine abandoning any plans for reform for serfs and allowing repression
Boston Tea Party
1774- America- Quebec Act & English pass “Intolerable Acts” in response to Boston Tea Party
1774-1792- King Louis XVI reigns in France
1776- Adam Smith publishes “The Wealth of Nations”- criticizes mercantilism, started trend
towards laissez-faire economics
1776-1783- Revolutionary War achieves American independence from Britain
1780s- Mechanical spinning of cotton spreads across England. Leads to further developments.
Industrial Revolution becomes evident in England
Steam engines finally advanced enough to market successfully
1780-1790- Emperor Joseph II introduces “enlightened” reforms in Austria
1784- Britain creates the India Office to manage British interests in India
1786- Prussia- Frederick William II succeeds Frederick the Great
1787- Written Constitution establishes new government in the U.S.
1789- French Revolution *see bottom
1790- Austria- Leopold succeeds in his brother Joseph II
1791?-1795- First Coalition (Austrian, Prussia) wages war with France- main accomplishment was actually the partition of Poland & the dissolution of the Polish state
1792- Austria, Francis II succeeds his father Leopold
Mary Wollstonecraft publishes “A Vindication of the Rights of Women”
1793, 1795- 2nd & 3rd Partitions destroy the Polish state
1799-1801- Second Coalition (Austria, Russia, Britain) wages war with France
1801-1825- Russia- Alexander I- grandson of Catherine the Great & educated by her
to be a kind of enlightened despot on the 18th century model
1802-1803- Peace Interim in Europe
1802- Britain- first Factory Act pushed through Parliament. Dead letter law, but tried to regulate
mill conditions for pauper children
1803- Britain & France go to war again, Britain seeks allies for Third Coalition
1804- Napoleonic Empire *see bottom
1805-1872- Italian Joseph Mazzini, nationalist philosopher. Nationalist secret societies.
“The Duties of Man” nationality & revolution were a holy cause.
1805-1807- Third Coalition (Austria, Russia, Britain) wages war with France. Battle of Trafalgar
established supremacy of the British Navy. The Holy Roman Empire was finally,
formally, and irrevocably dissolved. Napoleon makes conquest.
1806-1825- Latin American countries pursue successful campaigns for national independence
from Spain & Portugal
1807- July- Treaty of Tilsit, The French and Russian empires become allies against Great Britain. The Continental System is agreed to.
Robert Fulton uses the steam engine to propel river boats
1809- Austrian War of Liberation; Austria quickly defeated.
1814- March 9- Russia, Prussia, Austria, & Great Britain sign Quadruple Alliance
“White Terror” in France as counterrevolutionaries react to some rejoining Napoleon
1814-1815- Congress of Vienna- The Peace of Vienna thus brought to a close the great
political & military upheavals that had spread across Europe in the wake of the French
Revolution.
1818- Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle: withdraw troop from France; international union & military
suggested by Tsar Alexander, but rejected
1819- “Peterloo Massacre” suppresses protesting English workers in Manchester [people
responding to “Corn Law’, wages falling- turned to radicalism]. Parliament
passes “Six Acts” (outlaw seditious literature, search/seizure, right to meet, etc.)
Metternich’s “Carlsbad Decrees” suppress the German nationalist movement (Volksgeist-
national spirit, cultural, then political)
1820- Congress of Troppau: calls for international action against all revolutions in response to
Spain & Naples collapse; Tsar Alexander joined Metternich’s view on revolution
1822- Congress of Verona: authorizes French government to put down Spanish revolution
1823- Monroe Doctrine opposes European intervention in Latin America, thus supporting
“colonial” revolutions
1825- Tsar Alexander I “the man who defeated Napoleon” dies. December Revolt of
revolutionary military officers put down. Nicholas I ascends w/ repressive agenda
1829- Steam locomotive is tested safely in England
Greece recognized as independent kingdom following Russo-Turkish War (Turkish
fleet destroyed in 1827 by Anglo-French-Russian naval intervention)
1830s- France- journals w/ feminist titles established; Saint-Simon & Germaine de Stael inspire.
Golden Age of the West-European Bourgeoisie (in this case, employers/upper class)
1830- July Revolution (3 days) in France forces abdication of Charles X; Louis-Philippe becomes king through compromise, adhering scrupulously to the constitution.
Also called the July Monarchy
1831- Russia suppresses national movement in Poland, which is merged into Russian empire
Belgium set up as neutral state, incapable of treaties, protected by Great Powers
1832- Reform Bill widens British suffrage; alters representation in Parliament; two-party
system develops of Liberals and Conservatives
1834- Britain- new Poor Law- attempted to make relief more unpleasant than any job
1839- France- Louis Blanc’s “Organization of Work” promotes new socialist ideas- “social
workshops”; supported by revolutionary republicans & socialists
1840s- Marx, elaborating on Hegal, develops ideas: alienation of labor, freedom only possible
once private property abolished.
1846- Repeal of Corn Laws marks ascendancy of British industrial interests
1848- January- Marx and Engels publish the “Communist Manifesto”
February- Revolution in Paris; proclamation of the Second French Republic
March- Revolutions in Vienna, Berlin, Bohemia, and Hungary; Metternich flees from
Vienna to England
Italians rise against Austrian rule in northern Italy
March-April- Prussian Legislative Assembly meets in Berlin
May- All-German Frankfurt Assembly meets to draft constitution for a unified Germany
June- Thousands die in worker-army clashes in Parish
June-December- Counterrevolutionary forces regain control of Austrian Empire:
Bohemia, northern Italy, Hungary, Vienna
December- Louis Napoleon Bonaparte is elected president of French Republic
Francis Joseph becomes emperor of Austrian empire
1849- April- King Frederick William IV of Prussia rejects Frankfurt Assembly’s constitution &
offer of hereditary rule in a federal German state; Assembly dissolved
1850-1864- Taiping Rebellion in China is suppressed by Qing Dynasty; up to 20 million die
1850-1940- About 60 million people migrate from Europe
1852- Louis Napoleon Bonaparte becomes “Emperor Napoleon III” and establishes 2nd French Empire. Authoritarian government, but claimed it was in the interest of the people.
1853-1870- Baron Haussman supervises the modern rebuilding of Paris
1853- American Commodore Perry arrives in Yedo (Tokyo) Bay, “opening” Japan to foreign
commercial exchanges.
1854-1856- France and Britain (and later Austria-Hungary) join with Turkey to defeat Russia in
the Crimean War. Tsar Nicholas dies 1855; successor Alexander II sues for peace.
1855- Russia Tsar Nicholas dies; successor is Alexander II.
1856- Ottoman Empire launches reforms to modernize the legal and military system
1857- Gustave Flaubert publishes “Madame Bovary” (example of new realism affecting many
aspects of life)
“Indian Mutiny” threatens British control of India and leads to reforms in the imperial
administration
1859-1869- French company builds the Suez Canal
1859- Charles Darwin publishes “Origin of Species”; evolution becomes key theme in modern
intellectual life
1861-1865- Civil War in the U.S.
1861- Italians establish the unified Kingdom of Italy (except Venetia & Rome) following Italian
War of 1859 (Venetia added in 1866; Rome in 1870)
Tsar Alexander II abolishes serfdom in Russia
1862- Otto von Bismark appointed new chief minister of Prussia
1864- Napoleon III of France installs Austrian Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico
1867- Creation of the independent Dominion of Canada
Maximilian is overthrown; Benito Juarez returns as Mexican President
Bismark organizes a North German Confederation. Includes Prussia & 21 other states.
German states (including Austria) south of River Main remain independent.
1868- New Japanese emperor Mutsuhito begins the Meiji era; Japan enters process of rapid
economic and political change
1869- John Stuart Mill argues for women’s rights in “The Subjection of Women” (his wife,
Harriet Taylor, English feminist, helped)
Opening of Suez Canal in Egypt facilitates global trade
1870s- Western Europe & U.S. adopt the “gold standard” for global currency exchanges
1870- Prussia defeats France in brief war; Napoleon III abdicates and Parisians proclaim a
Third French Republic
1871- King Wilhelm of Prussia becomes emperor in newly established German Empire
The revolutionary Paris Commune is violently suppressed in France
1876- Abdul Hamid takes power as sultan in Ottoman Empire; repressive regime lasts 33 yrs.
1877-1878- Russo-Turkish War leads to Russian gains in the Balkans
1879- Germany signs military alliance with Austria-Hungary
1880s-1890s- Claude Monet portrays the nuances of light & color in Impressionist paintings
such as “Rouen Cathedral”
1885- Berlin Conference sets European terms for imperial control of Africa
Hindu Indian National Congress is organized to challenge British power in India
1890- Kaiser William II dismisses Bismark and begins to shape policies in German Empire
1894-1895- Japan goes to war with China and takes Formosa (later called Taiwan)
1894-1899- Dreyfus Affair bitterly divides republican and anti-republican factions in France
1894- France & Russia create the Franco-Russian alliance
Creation of Russian Marxist organization, the Social Democratic Party
1897- Theodor Herzl organizes the first international Zionist congress
1898- U.S. declares war on Spain & takes Cuba, Puerto Rico, & the Philippines
French & English forces come to brink of imperial conflict at Fashoda in Sudan
1899-1902- The Boer War enables Britain to consolidate power in S. Africa
1899- Chinese revolt against European powers, the “Boxer Uprising” is suppressed by
European forces
1900 (c.)- European population reaches its highest percentage of world population
1900- Sigmund Freud develops his theory of the unconscious mind in “The Interpr. of Dreams”
1903- Social Democrats split into two factions, Bolsheviks and Mensheviks; Lenin leads
Bolsheviks
1904-1905- Japan defeats Russia in Russo-Japanese War & expands into Manchuria
1904- France & Britain establish close relations in the entente cordiale
1905- Albert Einstein introduces the theory of relativity in physics
Germany challenges French-English relations by calling for Moroccan independence
from France
Jan.- Economic hardship, “Bloody Sunday,” & Russo-Japanese War spark Revolution
of 1905 in St. Petersburg
Oct.- Tsar’s “October Manifesto” establishes new parliamentary body, the Duma
1906-1911- Stolypin’s reforms promote growth of prosperous farmers (kaluks)
1906-1916- Liberal government in Britain introduces broad program of social welfare
1906- All-Indian Muslim League is organized to promote Indian nationalism and Muslim rights
1907- Pablo Picasso advances his new Cubist style of painting in works such as “Les
Demoiselles d’Avignon”
1911- Revolution in China ends Qing (Manchu) Dynasty
1912-1913- Two Balkan wars contribute to Serbian and Russian hostility toward Austria
1914- Opening of Panama Canal facilitates global trade in the Americas
Russia enters war with Germany and suffers crushing military defeats
June- Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand is assassinated by Bosnian terrorist in
Sarajevo
Aug.- Germany declares war on Russia and France; England declares war on Germany
Sept.- Battle of Marne stops German advance in France and leads to trench warfare on
the Western Front
1916- Battles of Verdun and the Somme confirm military stalemate in France
1917- March- Tsar Nicholas II abdicates; Russia becomes a republic under provisional
government and continues war with Germany
April- U.S. declares war on Germany
Germany provides safe passage for Bolshevik leaders to enter Russia
Nov.- Britain issues “Balfour Declaration,” promising support for a Jewish homeland
in Palestine
The Bolshevik Revolution: Lenin and followers overthrow the provisional
government in Petrograd
1918- Jan.- Bolsheviks dissolve Constituent Assembly & establish the Red Army
March- Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ends war between Russia and Germany
Nov.- Collapse of German & Austrian Empire
Armistice ends the fighting on the Western Front
1918-1920- Women gain the right to vote in Britain, Germany, & the U.S.
1918-1922- Bolsheviks consolidate power and suppress all opponents in Civil War & “Red Terror”
1919-1920- Creation of Third, or Communist, International (the Comintern)
1919- Gandhi launches campaign in India for independence from Britain
Jan.- Spartacist attempt at proletarian revolution is suppressed in Berlin
March- Western allies complete the Versailles Treaty, creasing new nations in eastern
Europe; Germany is charged w/ “war guilt” & reparations
July- Weimar Republic is established in Germany
1920- Treaty of Sevres breaks up the Ottoman Empire & leads to French and British “mandates”
in Middle East
1921-1927- New Economic Policy allows more independent commercial activity
1922- Establishment of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
Germany & the Soviet Union agree to diplomatic relations in Treaty of Rapollo
Britain recognizes the Irish Free State with dominion status; first step toward full
Sovereignty as Republic of Ireland
October- Mussolini takes power in Italy after the Fascist “March on Rome”
1923- French occupation of the Ruhr Valley and ruinous German inflation
Turkish Republic is established under the leadership of Kemal Ataturk, who launches
modernizing reforms
Nazis fail to mobilize political support during an attempted ‘Putsch’ in Munich
1924- First Labour government is elected in Britain under Ramsey MacDonald
1925-1927- Stalin prevails over Trotsky to take control of the Bolshevik Central Comm.
1925- Treaties at Locarno recognize the postwar European national borders
Reza Khan becomes shah of Iran and seeks to curb British & other foreign concessions
Death of Sun Yat-sen is followed by conflicts between Nationalists & Communists China
1928- Stalin launches the first Five-Year Plan for economic development
1929- Soviet regime beings the collectivization of agriculture; resistance from kulaks &
others leads to widespread repression and famine
Oct.- Stock market crash in New York leads to the Great Depression
1931-1932- Japanese forces expand control of Manchuria
1932-1939- Writers respond to social crisis with “social realism”
1932- Governments respond to economic crisis with national protectionism
1933- January- Hitler comes to power in Germany; Nazis soon take control of all state
Institutions and suppress opposition
March- Franklin D. Roosevelt introduces the “New Deal” in America to mitigate
economic effects of the Great Depression
1934-1935- Chinese communists make 6,000 mile Long March
1934- Right-wing and fascist groups in France challenge the Third Republic w/ riots during
The Stavisky Affair
1935- Nazis adopt Nuremburg laws against Jews
Mussolini launches an Italian invasion and conquest of Ethiopia
1936-1937- Public “purge trials” remove Old Bolsheviks from Communist Party; many are
executed or imprisoned
1936- Left-wing “Popular Front” comes to power in France under Leon Blum and enacts
notable social reforms
March- German troops enter Rhineland; France and Britain do not intervene
July- Fascist groups under General Franco in Spain rise against the Spanish Republic; Franco takes power after three-year Civil War.
1938- The Nazi regime encourages violent attacks on Jews and Jewish property during
‘Kristallnacht’- the night of “broken glass”
March- Hitler annexes Austria to Nazi Germany
Sept.- French and British leaders meet with Hitler in Munich and accept German takeover of Sudentenland in Czechoslovakia
1939- Aug.- Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact includes plan for division of Poland
Sept.- Nazi invasion of Poland begins the Second World War
1940- May-June- Nazis conquer the Netherlands, Belgium, and France
July- French collaborators set up a pro-fascist regime in Vichy
Sept.- German air attacks on Britain are repelled in Battle of Britain
1941- June- Germany launches massive invasion of the Soviet Union
Dec.- Japanese attack on U.S. Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor brings the U.S. into war with Japan and then Germany
1942- Jan.- Nazi leaders launch plans to build death camps for genocidal killing of European
Jews and others
1943- Feb.- Soviet forces defeat the Germans in decisive battle at Stalingrad
1944- June- Allied Armies open a “western front” in France after D-Day landings at Normandy
1945- The United Nations is established at a conference in San Francisco
Feb.- Churchill, Roosevelt, & Stalin agree on postwar arrangements at meeting in Yalta
May- Germany surrenders after Hitler commits suicide in Berlin
Sept.- Japan surrenders after the U.S. drops two atomic bombs and the Soviet Union
declares war on Japan
1946- U.S. grants independence to Philippines
1947- Secretary of State George C. Marshall announces U.S. plan to aid the rebuilding of Europe
Britain ends imperial rule in South Asia, partitioning the region into the two new nations
of India and Pakistan
1948-1949- American airlift of supplies sustains West Berlin during Soviet blockade
1948- Republic of Israel is established; Arab states go to war against Israel
Afrikaner Nationalist Party expands rigid racial segregation in South Africa through
apartheid laws
1949- The Soviet Union successfully tests an atomic bomb
Mao Zedong & the Communist party proclaim the People’s Republic of China
Indonesia wins independence from the Netherlands
1950-1953- Korean War demonstrates new American policy to “contain” communism
1953- Death of Stalin opens new era in Soviet and East European history
1954-1962- Algerian nationalists wage war for independence from France
1954- France withdraws from Indochina; two governments emerge in North and South Vietnam
1955- Leaders of 29 “new nations” meet in Bandung, Indonesia, and affirm “nonalignment” in
the Cold War
1956- Unsuccessful revolts against Soviet control in Poland and Hungary
Britain, France, & Israel attack Egypt after it nationalizes Suez Canal
1957- Six West-European nations establish a new Common Market for trade
Mao launches “Great Leap Forward” in China; leads to deadly famine
Ghana is the first British colony in Africa to win independence
1958- France establishes the Fifth Republic with Charles de Gaulle as president
1959-1961- Fidel Castro establishes Communist government in Cuba
1962- French war in Algeria ends with recognition of Algerian independence
1965- General Suharto overthrows Sukarno; begins 32-year rule in Indonesia
1966-1967- The “Cultural Revolution” creates disruptions throughout China
1967-1970- In Nigeria Ibo secession movement in Biafra is suppressed
1967- June- Six-Day War leads to Israel’s military occupation of Palestinian lands on West
Bank of Jordan River and the Gaza Strip
1970-1973- Leftist government in Chile; overthrown by coup and Pinochet dictatorship
1971- India helps Bangladesh gain independence from Pakistan
1974- India develops nuclear weapons
1976-1983- Dictatorship in Argentina represses leftist opposition
1979- Soviet Union invades Afghanistan and begins war with Muslim guerillas
1989- Soviets withdraw from Afghanistan; radical Muslim (Taliban) government follows
Military rulers in Burma repress dissent; nation is renamed Myanmar
1994- Mexican-U.S.-Canadian Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) goes into effect
1996-1999- Rising power of Indian People’s Party (BJP) fosters Hindu-based nationalism
1998- Pakistan detonates a nuclear bomb
General Suharto is ousted from power in Indonesia
Hugo Chavez becomes president of leftist government in Venezuela
2000- Vincente Fox is elected president of Mexico; ends 71 years of rule by Institutional
Revolutionary Party (PRI)
Mid 17th century- Eastern Europe divided into three weak empires (referenced above)
Holy Roman Empire after 1648- bore some of oldest traditions of Christendom, after Peace of Westphalia basically a group of individual countries w/ little to no allegiance to entity known as “Holy Roman Empire” Republic of Poland about 1650- made up of union of Poland & the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; population very heterogeneous. Polish aristocracy about 8% of population, each ruled their own lands like a little empire; weak central government made the distinction of country about worthless Ottoman Empire about 1650- Arabic (obviously). While originally fairly solidly organized, their allowance of allowing local populations to rule themselves according to their culture and tradition, combined with increasingly corrupt sultans led to weakening of Empire.
All three superseded by newer and strong powers:
***Prussia- after 1700, one of the two major powers that emerged out of Holy Roman Empire Ruled by the house of Brandenburg/Hohenzollern. Brandenburg worked ceaselessly to united small sections they owned & capture lands separating those sections. In 1701, negotiated title of King of Prussia from Holy Roman Emperor in return for supporting him in War of Spanish Succession. Prussian Military State guaranteed their continued dominance.
***Austria- after 1700, one of the two major powers that emerged out of Holy Roman Empire Ruled by the house of Austria/Hapsburg. Basically consisted of three parts: Upper and Lower Austria, kingdom of Bohemia (under crown of St. Wenceslas), and kingdom of Hungary (under crown of St. Stephen). Only thing holding them together was that the Austrian Habsburg dynasty held them all. 1713 Pragmatic Sanction agreed to undivided succession; when Charles VI died in 1740 & it fell apart.
***Russia- in century after 1650, the old stardom of Muscovy turned into modern Russia. Moved out from region around Moscow, entered into closer relationship w/ Europe. Like Prussia, the state developed as a means of supporting a modern army. The government developed autocratically, in conjunction with landlord class which was impressed into state service and which in turn held peasantry in serfdom. No commercial class of import. 1682-1725- Tsar Peter the Great, rapid Europeanization of Russia
1900 B.C.- Indo-Europeans filter into Greece, replacing older Cretan civilization
1300 B.C.- Greece started to being referred to as such
800 B.C.-700 A.D.- Great world religions came into being
500-300 B.C.- Creative era of Classical Greek Civilizations: Plato, Aristotle
500 B.C.-500 A.D.- Classical Greek & Roman civilizations
356-323 B.C. Alexander the Great
146 B.C.- Roman Republic conquers Greece
45-31 B.C.- Roman Republic evolves into the Roman Empire
31 B.C.-476 A.D.- Roman Empire
26-29 A.D. (c.)- Jesus is active in Palestine; beginnings of Christianity
67 A.D. (c.)- Paul & Peter martyred
306-337 A.D.- Roman Emperor Constantine: toleration of Christianity
330- Constantine founds Constantinople (formerly Byzantium)
410- Rome plundered by “heathen barbarians”
420 (c.)- St. Augustine writes “City of God”
450 (c.)- Huns cut through central Europe and France
476- End of Roman Empire in the West
Byzantine Empire & Latin Christendom become 2 of 3 “Great Civilizations”
450-750- Roman Catholic Church gains converts and influence in Western Europe
480-543- St. Benedict
500-1500- Middle Ages (Dark Ages sub-period)
570 (c.)- Prophet Muhammad born
610-632- Prophet Muhammad teaches the new religion of Islam
635-720- Islam spreads across Middle East, North Africa, and Spain
Arabic World becomes 1 of 3 “Great Civilizations”
732- Muslims in central Europe stopped by Christian and Frankish army at Tours/ Helps to define European boundaries & allows expansion of Europe
800- Coronation of Emperor Charlemagne; the Carolingian Empire
962- German King crowned emperor: Holy Roman Empire proclaimed
987- Hugh Capet chosen as French King: descendants occupied throne until French Revolution
1000 (c.)- Entity called Europe had come into existence
1000-1200- Improvements in European agriculture and rise of towns
Barbarian raids over
1054- Schism of Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox Eastern Church
1066- England conquered by William, Duke of Normandy: Normans impose feudalism
1095-1099- First Christian Crusade in Palestine
1100-1200- Arabic and Greek science enters European Culture
1147-1221- Second through Fifth Christian Crusades
1198-1216- Pope Innocent III: height of medieval Papacy: dream of unified European Christian Empire almost realized. Church receiving tithes & involved in
royalty all over Europe
1100-1300- Development of Universities and Scholasticism
1215- Magna Carta
Innocent III calls great Church council- ends barbarianism, defines sacraments
1240 (c.)- Mongol invasion & conquest of Russia, now under Asian domination for 250 yrs.
1267-1273- Thomas Aquinas writes the “Summa Theologica”
1309-1378- “Babylonian Captivity”: Papacy in Avignon
1337-1453- Hundred Years’ War between England and France
1348-1350- Black Death decimates European population
1350-1500 (c.)- Renaissance Humanism & Art
1378-1417- Schism of Roman Catholic Church: Popes in Avignon and Rome
1431- Joan of Arc burned @ the stake
1438- Pragmatic Sanction of France gives considerable freedom to French Church
1450-1485- War of the Roses
1450-1650- Russia loose medley of people distinguished by their language. Two centuries spent in slow and steady expansion.
1452-1806- Habsburg rule Holy Roman Empire (w/ one generational exception)
1454- Johann Gutenberg begins printing books with movable type
1461-1483- Louis XI of France (introduction of the “New Monarchs”)
1466-1536- Erasmus of Rotterdam
1469- Isabella of Castile & Ferdinand of Aragon marry; form Spain
1480- Grand Duke of Muscovy (Russia) Ivan III throws off Mongol domination/ceases tribute
1485-1603- Reign of the Tudors (introduction of the “New Monarchs”)
1494- French invasion of Italy destroys independence of city-states
1500-1700- Eastern Europe- peasant mass increasingly loses its freedoms
1500-1900- Europe created most powerful combination of political, military, economic, technological, and scientific apparatus ever seen.
1513- Niccolo Machiavelli writes “The Prince:
1517- Martin Luther posts his “95 theses”; beginning of Protestant Reformation
1519-1522- Ferdinand Magellan circumnavigates the globe
1529- Ottoman Empire about broke into Germany; Hungary spent much of the next century plus as a battleground
1533-1584- Ivan the Terrible, first grand duke of Muscovy to assume title of tsar
1536- John Calvin publishes “Institutes of the Christian Religion”
1545-1563- Roman Catholic Council meets at Trent; promotes Catholic reforms
1552- Ivan the Terrible conquers Kazan from Tarters for Russia, part of expansionist policy.
1555- Peace of Augsburg recognizes Protestant & Catholic states in Germany
1556-1598- Reign of King Philip II in Spain
1559- King Henry II of France dies/ leaves behind Catherine de’ Medici & three young sons
1562-1598- Wars of Religion & civil wars in France
1565- “Manila Galleons” open Spanish trade routes between Asia and America
1566- Revolt against Spanish control begins in the Netherlands
1579/1581- Union of Utrecht/ formally declare independence Dutch Republic called Holland
1588- Spanish Armada is destroyed off the coast of England and Scotland
1598- King Henry IV issues Edict of Nantes; grants religious rights to French Protestants
1603- James I succeeds Elizabeth I in England
1604-1613- Time of Troubles in Russia (factions/civil war); 1613 national assembly, hoping to settle troubles, elects Michael Romanov (related to old line of Ivan
the Terrible) tsar, thus establishing Romanov dynasty which rules until 1917. Early Romanov set up as absolute monarchs to avoid
disintegration they were witnessing of Poland/HRE.
1609- Twelve Year’ Truce between Dutch (north) and Spanish Netherlands (south)
1611-1718- Sweden had amazing victories & almost managed to form an Empire in central and Eastern Europe. Eventually crushed by the Russians.
1618-1648- The Thirty Years’ War in Germany
1618-1625- Bohemian phase
1625-1629- Danish phase
1630-1635- Swedish phase
1635-1648- Swedish-French phase
1618- Elector of Brandenburg inherited duchy of Prussia
1625- Charles I succeeds James I, his father, in England
1640-1688- Frederick William, the Great Elector, develops state and military power in Prussia
1640-1660- “Long Parliament” in England
1642-1648- Civil War in England
1648- Peace of Westphalia recognizes system of sovereign European states, renews terms of Peace of Augsburg (1555)
The Fronde in France- abortive revolution led by parliaments and nobility
1649- Pride’s Purge
Execution of King Charles I in London
1649-1658- Oliver Cromwell leads the English “Commonwealth” and “Protectorate”
Mid 17th century- Eastern Europe divided into three weak empires; see below
1660- Restoration of English monarchy, King Charles II
1661- King Louis XIV takes personal control of French government; reign continues to 1715
1663- Ottoman Empire begins new phase of expansion in Central Europe
1667-1671- Stephen Razin leads rebellion of rural population in Russia to protest growing movement of serfdom towards something like slavery
1672- William of Orange elected stadholder/king of Dutch Republic
1673- Test Act passed in England/ Barred Catholics from government/army/navy
1682-1725- Tsar Peter the Great, rapid Europeanization of Russia
1683- Ottoman imperial army is forced to abandon siege of Vienna
1685- Revocation of Edict of Nantes; persecution of French Protestants
James II succeeds Charles II in England; ignores Test Act, supports absolutism
1688- “Glorious Revolution” brings William of Orange and Mary to English throne and strengthens power of Parliament
1698-1725- Tsar Peter the Great introduces “westernizing” reforms in Russia
1699- Peace of Karlowitz- Turks yield Transylvania, Croatia, & most of Hungary to Habsburg; Ottoman Empire pushed permanently into Romania & the Balkans
1700-1721- Great Northern War (Russia), Sweden imperialism was now over. Peace confirmed by treaty of Nystadt in 1721.
1701- Frederick III, elector of Brandenburg, negotiates recognition of himself, by emperor, as King Frederick I of Prussia
1702-1713- War of Spanish Succession; “balance of power” limits French expansion
1707- United Kingdom of Great Britain formed (Scotland joins England)
1711-1740- Habsburg Charles VI builds the Austrian Empire
1713- Habsburg Charles VI issues Pragmatic Sanction with goal of holding “Austria” together after his death
1713-1740- Frederick William I expands the army and wealth of the Prussian state
1713- Peace of Utrecht- portioned Spain, left England & France as two major powers
1740- Frederick II (the Great) becomes King of Prussia, inheriting a giant army & war chest of 7 million thalers.
1900 B.C.- Indo-Europeans filter into Greece, replacing older Cretan civilization
1300 B.C.- Greece started to being referred to as such
800 B.C.-700 A.D.- Great world religions came into being
500-300 B.C.- Creative era of Classical Greek Civilizations: Plato, Aristotle
500 B.C.-500 A.D.- Classical Greek & Roman civilizations
356-323 B.C. Alexander the Great
146 B.C.- Roman Republic conquers Greece
45-31 B.C.- Roman Republic evolves into the Roman Empire
31 B.C.-476 A.D.- Roman Empire
26-29 A.D. (c)- Jesus is active in Palestine; beginnings of Christianity
67 A.D. (c)- Paul & Peter martyred
306-337 A.D.- Roman Emperor Constantine: toleration of Christianity
330- Constantine founds Constantinople (formerly Byzantium)
410- Rome plundered by “heathen barbarians”
420 (c)- St. Augustine writes “City of God”
450 (c)- Huns cut through central Europe and France
476- End of Roman Empire in the West
Byzantine Empire & Latin Christendom become 2 of 3 “Great Civilizations”
450-750- Roman Catholic Church gains converts and influence in Western Europe
480-543- St. Benedict
500-1500- Middle Ages (Dark Ages sub-period)
570 (c)- Prophet Muhammad born
610-632- Prophet Muhammad teaches the new religion of Islam
635-720- Islam spreads across Middle East, North Africa, and Spain
Arabic World becomes 1 of 3 “Great Civilizations”
732- Muslims in central Europe stopped by Christian and Frankish army at Tours/
Helps to define European boundaries & allows expansion of Europe
800- Coronation of Emperor Charlemagne; the Carolingian Empire
962- German King crowned emperor: Holy Roman Empire proclaimed
987- Hugh Capet chosen as French King: descendants occupied throne until French Revolution
1000 (c)- Entity called Europe had come into existence
1000-1200- Improvements in European agriculture and rise of towns
Barbarian raids over
1054- Schism of Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox Eastern Church
1066- England conquered by William, Duke of Normandy: Normans impose feudalism
1095-1099- First Christian Crusade in Palestine
1100-1200- Arabic and Greek science enters European Culture
1147-1221- Second through Fifth Christian Crusades
1198-1216- Pope Innocent III: height of medieval Papacy: dream of unified European Christian
Empire almost realized. Church receiving tithes & involved in royalty all over Europe
1100-1300- Development of Universities and Scholasticism
1215- Magna Carta
Innocent III calls great Church council- ends barbarianism, defines sacraments
1240 (c)- Mongol invasion & conquest of Russia, now under Asian domination for 250 yrs.
1267-1273- Thomas Aquinas writes the “Summa Theologica”
1309-1378- “Babylonian Captivity”: Papacy in Avignon
1337-1453- Hundred Years’ War between England and France
1348-1350- Black Death decimates European population
1350-1500 (c)- Renaissance Humanism & Art
1378-1417- Schism of Roman Catholic Church: Popes in Avignon and Rome
1431- Joan of Arc burned @ the stake
1438- Pragmatic Sanction of France gives considerable freedom to French Church
1450-1485- War of the Roses
1450-1650- Russia loose medley of people distinguished by their language. Two centuries
spent in slow and steady expansion.
Approx. 1450-1650- Period when fear of witches was at its height.
1452-1519- Leonardo da Vinci- universal genius of the Italian Renaissance. However, known as
painter; in history of science, he is isolated genius who didn’t publish his works
1452-1806- Habsburg rule Holy Roman Empire (w/ one generational exception)
1454- Johann Gutenberg begins printing books with movable type
1461-1483- Louis XI of France (introduction of the “New Monarchs”)
1466-1536- Erasmus of Rotterdam
1469- Isabella of Castile & Ferdinand of Aragon marry; form Spain
1469-1527- Niccolo Machiavelli, Renaissance Italian. Political theory
1473-1543- Nicholas Copernicus. Held that the sun to be the center of the solar system & whole
universe; earth was simply revolving around it. He gave mathematical demonstration.
1480- Grand Duke of Muscovy (Russia) Ivan III throws off Mongol domination/ceases tribute
1485-1603- Reign of the Tudors (introduction of the “New Monarchs”)
1494- French invasion of Italy destroys independence of city-states
16th century- Pope Gregory XIII introduces Gregorian calendar, system of common dating.
Gradually accepted & replaced Julian- England in 1752, Russia in 1918
1500-1700- Eastern Europe- peasant mass increasingly loses its freedoms
1500-1900- Europe created most powerful combination of political, military, economic,
technological, and scientific apparatus ever seen.
1513- Niccolo Machiavelli writes “The Prince:
1517- Martin Luther posts his “95 theses”; beginning of Protestant Reformation
1519-1522- Ferdinand Magellan circumnavigates the globe
1529- Ottoman Empire about broke into Germany; Hungary spent much of the next century plus
as a battleground
1533-1584- Ivan the Terrible, first grand duke of Muscovy to assume title of tsar
1536- John Calvin publishes “Institutes of the Christian Religion”
1543- Publication of Copernicus’s “On the Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs” &
Vesalius’s “The Structure of the Human Body”
1545-1563- Roman Catholic Council meets at Trent; promotes Catholic reforms
1552- Ivan the Terrible conquers Kazan from Tarters for Russia, part of expansionist policy.
1555- Peace of Augsburg recognizes Protestant & Catholic states in Germany
1556-1598- Reign of King Philip II in Spain
1559- King Henry II of France dies/ leaves behind Catherine de’ Medici & three young sons
1561-1626- Francis Bacon- Englishman. Rejected earlier scholarship as worthless, became herald/philosopher of a scientific view. Published “Novum Organum” (new method of
acquiring knowledge) in 1620; “The Advancement of Learning” in 1623; “The New Atlantis” in 1627. Baconian tradition- fact that knowledge could be used for practical purposes became a sign or proof that it was true knowledge. Failed to understand role
of mathematics, and had limited influence during his life.
1562-1598- Wars of Religion & civil wars in France
1564-1642- Galileo. Proved two objects will fall at the same rate when difference for air
resistance accounted for. Used telescope to prove moon was made of matter, not light.
Developed extensive laws on the motion of bodies.
1565- “Manila Galleons” open Spanish trade routes between Asia and America
1566- Revolt against Spanish control begins in the Netherlands
1571-1630- Johannes Kepler. Discovered orbits of the planets were ellipses. Showed cosmic
mathematical relationship between space & time; described movements planets precisely.
1579/1581- Union of Utrecht/ formally declare independence Dutch Republic called Holland
1588- Spanish Armada is destroyed off the coast of England and Scotland
1588-1679- Thomas Hobbes. Philosophically justified absolutism. Concluded humans have no
capacity for self-government
1596-1650- Rene Descartes- Frenchman. Rejected earlier scholarship as worthless, became herald/philosopher of a scientific view. Great mathematician. Inventor of coordinate geometry. Created general belief that vast world of nature could be reduced to mathematical form & advanced principle of systematic doubt.
1598- King Henry IV issues Edict of Nantes; grants religious rights to French Protestants
17th century- has been called the century of genius. Age when science became “modern.”
Science applied to other areas (ex: industry) & became popularized.
1603- James I succeeds Elizabeth I in England
1604-1613- Time of Troubles in Russia (factions/civil war); 1613 national assembly, hoping
to settle troubles, elects Michael Romanov (related to old line of Ivan the Terrible) tsar,
thus establishing Romanov dynasty which rules until 1917. Early Romanov set up as
absolute monarchs to avoid disintegration they were witnessing of Poland/HRE.
1609- Twelve Year’ Truce between Dutch (north) and Spanish Netherlands (south)
Galileo builds a telescope
1619- First enslaved Africans arrive in Virginia
1611-1718- Sweden had amazing victories & almost managed to form an Empire in central
and Eastern Europe. Eventually crushed by the Russians.
1618-1648- The Thirty Years’ War in Germany
1618-1625- Bohemian phase
1625-1629- Danish phase
1630-1635- Swedish phase
1635-1648- Swedish-French phase
1618- Elector of Brandenburg inherited duchy of Prussia
1619- First enslaved Africans arrive in Virginia
1620-1627- Francis Bacon argues for inductive method and empirical method, the founding of
knowledge on observation and experience.
1625- Charles I succeeds James I, his father, in England
1632-1704- John Locke, Englishman. Summarized many intellectual trends of his lifetime and
exerted influence for next 100 years. Combined practical experience and theoretical
interests in a philosophy that dwelled on merits of common sense. Believed in constitutionalism; right to life, liberty, & property
1637- Rene Descartes publishes “Discourse on Method”
1640-1688- Frederick William, the Great Elector, develops state and military power in Prussia
1640-1660- “Long Parliament” in England
1642-1648- Civil War in England
1642-1727- Isaac Newton- first modern scientific synthesis, or coherent theory of the physical
universe, presented. Combined Kepler & Galileo to prove universal gravitation. Invented
calculus.
1648- Peace of Westphalia recognizes system of sovereign European states, renews terms of
Peace of Augsburg (1555)
The Fronde in France- abortive revolution led by parliaments and nobility
1649- Pride’s Purge
Execution of King Charles I in London
1649-1658- Oliver Cromwell leads the English “Commonwealth” and “Protectorate”
Mid 17th century- Eastern Europe divided into three weak empires; see bottom
1651- Thomas Hobbes publishes “Leviathan” (government must be a type of Leviathan, an
absolute ruler with all power to control people’s brute instincts).
1660- Restoration of English monarchy, King Charles II
1661- King Louis XIV takes personal control of French government; reign continues to 1715
1662- Royal Society is founded in London, dedicated to pursuit of natural/scientific knowledge
1663- Ottoman Empire begins new phase of expansion in Central Europe
1666- Royal Academy of Sciences founded in Paris
1667-1671- Stephen Razin leads rebellion of rural population in Russia to protest growing
movement of serfdom towards something like slavery
1672- William of Orange elected stadholder/king of Dutch Republic
1673- Test Act passed in England/ Barred Catholics from government/army/navy
1678- French priest Richard Simon publishes “Critical History of the Old Testament,”
pioneering work on Biblical (textual) criticism
1681- French Benedict monk Jean Mabillon publishes “On Diplomatics”, established science of
paleography (deciphering, dating, authenticating manuscripts)
1682-1725- Tsar Peter the Great, rapid Europeanization of Russia
1683- Ottoman imperial army is forced to abandon siege of Vienna
1685- Revocation of Edict of Nantes; persecution of French Protestants
James II succeeds Charles II in England; ignores Test Act, supports absolutism
1687- Isaac Newton publishes “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”- shows all
motion, on earth and space, could be timed & measured w/ same mathematical formulas.
1688- “Glorious Revolution” brings William of Orange and Mary to English throne and strengthens power of Parliament. Landowning class, now with increased power, source
of Agricultural Revolution, thus helped usher in Industrial Revolution
1689-1755- Philosophe Montesquieu- believed governments varied according to climate &
circumstance. Supported for France power divided between the king and a great many
“intermediate bodies”
1690- John Locke publishes “Essay Concerning Human Understanding” & “Two Treatises on
Government”- decided true or certain knowledge is derived from experience
1694-1755- Philosophe Voltaire- preached the cause of religious toleration. First to present
a purely secular conception of world history. No strong religious theory, enlightened
or rational despotism.
1697- Pierre Bayle publishes “Historical Critical Dictionary”- tremendous repository of
miscellaneous lore; remained reservoir of knowledge for skeptical writers for generations
1698-1725- Tsar Peter the Great introduces “westernizing” reforms in Russia
1699- Peace of Karlowitz- Turks yield Transylvania, Croatia, & most of Hungary to Habsburg;
Ottoman Empire pushed permanently into Romania & the Balkans
1700-1721- Great Northern War (Russia), Sweden imperialism was now over. Peace confirmed
by treaty of Nystadt in 1721.
1701- Frederick III, elector of Brandenburg, negotiates recognition of himself, by emperor,
as King Frederick I of Prussia
1702- English crown passes to Anne, following death of William
1702-1713- War of Spanish Succession; “balance of power” limits French expansion
1707- United Kingdom of Great Britain formed (Scotland joins England)
1711-1740- Habsburg Charles VI builds the Austrian Empire
1712-1778- Philosophe Jean-Jacques Rousseau- pathetically and painfully maladjusted, possibly
paranoid. Despite this, possibly most profound writer of the age & most permanently
influential. Gave impression that impulse is more reliable than considered judgment.
Prophet of both democracy and nationalism.
1713- Habsburg Charles VI issues Pragmatic Sanction with goal of holding “Austria” together
after his death
1713-1740- Frederick William I expands the army and wealth of the Prussian state
1713- Peace of Utrecht- portioned Spain, left England & France as two major powers
In France, the new king was a child, Louis XV, great-grandson of Louis XIV, and only five when his reign began in 1715. Government entrusted to regent, Duke of Orleans, with nobles now reappearing in government. The old parlements, especially Parlement of Paris, vigorously reasserted themselves. After the “bubble,” governed by statesman, Cardinal Fleury, when regent was forced to resign.
In England, Parliament and aristocracy more competent than that of France. Bluntly speaking, Parliament was corrupt, slow, and expensive, but also effective. Queen Anne, last reigning Stuart, died in 1714, and succeeded by George I, Elector of Hanover, as provided for in the Act of Settlement of 1701. With no English and little popularity, he allowed Parliament to gain considerable independence & power. Robert Walpole managed to hold things together after bubble & government paid debt. Walpole been referred to as the first prime minister and architect of cabinet government.
1715- The “pretender” James III, supported by Jacobites, lands in Scotland and declares war on
King George I. The revolt petered out.
1720- The “Mississippi Bubble” in France & “South Sea Bubble” in
1727- England- George II succeeds George I
1733- Voltaire publishes “Philosophical Letters on the English”- popularized new scientific ideas
1740- Frederick II (the Great) becomes King of Prussia, inheriting a giant army & war chest
1740-1748- War of Austrian Succession in Europe *see bottom
1740-1780- Queen Maria Theresa rules and expands the Austrian Empire
1740-1786- Frederick II (the Great) rules and expands the Kingdom of Prussia
1741- Montesquieu publishes “The Spirit of Laws”- two principle ideas on government
Russia- After Peter the Great died in 1725, rival factions put a series of a tsars, tsarinas,
and short-lived governments on throne. Palace Revolution in 1741 brings
Peter’s daughter Elizabeth to power for 21 years, during which military power
was expanded & she entered into European diplomacy. After her death, again
upheaval until Empress Catherine II (the Great) in 1762.
1745- The “Young Pretender,” Prince Charlie” lands in Scotland and proclaims rebellion.
Crushed by Hanoverian regiments brought in from Germany; result: Scottish Highlands
wiped out, clans broken up, land reorganized.
1745- Maria Theresa Habsburg gets her husband elected Holy Roman Emperor Francis I.
1751-1772- Publication of the “Encyclopedia” in Paris
1753- Jean-Jacques Rousseau publishes “Origin of Inequality Among Men”- argued life in a
“state of nature” would be better
1756-1763- The Seven Years’ War; expansion of British power in India & America *see bottom
1762- Rousseau publishes “The Social Contract” & “Emile”- now held that good people could be
produced only be an improved society/ novel
1762-1796- Tsarina Catherine the Great reigns as “enlightened despot” in Russia- territorially,
one of main builders of modern Russia
1764- America- “Sugar” Act passed.
1765- America- “Stamp” Act passed
1767- America- English pass Townshend duties
1769- Emergence of Reform Movement in British Parliament
1772- Prussia, Austria, and Russia impose the First Partition of Poland
1773- Emelian Pugachev leads in a rebellion of the lower classes in Russia, resulting in
enlightened Catherine abandoning any plans for reform for serfs and allowing repression
Boston Tea Party
1774- America- Quebec Act & English pass “Intolerable Acts” in response to Boston Tea Party
1774-1792- King Louis XVI reigns in France
1776- Adam Smith publishes “The Wealth of Nations”- criticizes mercantilism, started trend
towards laissez-faire economics
1776-1783- Revolutionary War achieves American independence from Britain
1780s- Mechanical spinning of cotton spreads across England. Leads to further developments.
Industrial Revolution becomes evident in England
Steam engines finally advanced enough to market successfully
1780-1790- Emperor Joseph II introduces “enlightened” reforms in Austria
1784- Britain creates the India Office to manage British interests in India
1786- Prussia- Frederick William II succeeds Frederick the Great
1787- Written Constitution establishes new government in the U.S.
1789- French Revolution *see bottom
1790- Austria- Leopold succeeds in his brother Joseph II
1791?-1795- First Coalition (Austrian, Prussia) wages war with France- main accomplishment was actually the partition of Poland & the dissolution of the Polish state
1792- Austria, Francis II succeeds his father Leopold
Mary Wollstonecraft publishes “A Vindication of the Rights of Women”
1793, 1795- 2nd & 3rd Partitions destroy the Polish state
1799-1801- Second Coalition (Austria, Russia, Britain) wages war with France
1801-1825- Russia- Alexander I- grandson of Catherine the Great & educated by her
to be a kind of enlightened despot on the 18th century model
1802-1803- Peace Interim in Europe
1802- Britain- first Factory Act pushed through Parliament. Dead letter law, but tried to regulate
mill conditions for pauper children
1803- Britain & France go to war again, Britain seeks allies for Third Coalition
1804- Napoleonic Empire *see bottom
1805-1872- Italian Joseph Mazzini, nationalist philosopher. Nationalist secret societies.
“The Duties of Man” nationality & revolution were a holy cause.
1805-1807- Third Coalition (Austria, Russia, Britain) wages war with France. Battle of Trafalgar
established supremacy of the British Navy. The Holy Roman Empire was finally,
formally, and irrevocably dissolved. Napoleon makes conquest.
1806-1825- Latin American countries pursue successful campaigns for national independence
from Spain & Portugal
1807- July- Treaty of Tilsit, The French and Russian empires become allies against Great Britain. The Continental System is agreed to.
Robert Fulton uses the steam engine to propel river boats
1809- Austrian War of Liberation; Austria quickly defeated.
1814- March 9- Russia, Prussia, Austria, & Great Britain sign Quadruple Alliance
“White Terror” in France as counterrevolutionaries react to some rejoining Napoleon
1814-1815- Congress of Vienna- The Peace of Vienna thus brought to a close the great
political & military upheavals that had spread across Europe in the wake of the French
Revolution.
1818- Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle: withdraw troop from France; international union & military
suggested by Tsar Alexander, but rejected
1819- “Peterloo Massacre” suppresses protesting English workers in Manchester [people
responding to “Corn Law’, wages falling- turned to radicalism]. Parliament
passes “Six Acts” (outlaw seditious literature, search/seizure, right to meet, etc.)
Metternich’s “Carlsbad Decrees” suppress the German nationalist movement (Volksgeist-
national spirit, cultural, then political)
1820- Congress of Troppau: calls for international action against all revolutions in response to
Spain & Naples collapse; Tsar Alexander joined Metternich’s view on revolution
1822- Congress of Verona: authorizes French government to put down Spanish revolution
1823- Monroe Doctrine opposes European intervention in Latin America, thus supporting
“colonial” revolutions
1825- Tsar Alexander I “the man who defeated Napoleon” dies. December Revolt of
revolutionary military officers put down. Nicholas I ascends w/ repressive agenda
1829- Steam locomotive is tested safely in England
Greece recognized as independent kingdom following Russo-Turkish War (Turkish
fleet destroyed in 1827 by Anglo-French-Russian naval intervention)
1830s- France- journals w/ feminist titles established; Saint-Simon & Germaine de Stael inspire.
Golden Age of the West-European Bourgeoisie (in this case, employers/upper class)
1830- July Revolution (3 days) in France forces abdication of Charles X; Louis-Philippe becomes king through compromise, adhering scrupulously to the constitution.
Also called the July Monarchy
1831- Russia suppresses national movement in Poland, which is merged into Russian empire
Belgium set up as neutral state, incapable of treaties, protected by Great Powers
1832- Reform Bill widens British suffrage; alters representation in Parliament; two-party
system develops of Liberals and Conservatives
1834- Britain- new Poor Law- attempted to make relief more unpleasant than any job
1839- France- Louis Blanc’s “Organization of Work” promotes new socialist ideas- “social
workshops”; supported by revolutionary republicans & socialists
1840s- Marx, elaborating on Hegal, develops ideas: alienation of labor, freedom only possible
once private property abolished.
1846- Repeal of Corn Laws marks ascendancy of British industrial interests
1848- January- Marx and Engels publish the “Communist Manifesto”
February- Revolution in Paris; proclamation of the Second French Republic
March- Revolutions in Vienna, Berlin, Bohemia, and Hungary; Metternich flees from
Vienna to England
Italians rise against Austrian rule in northern Italy
March-April- Prussian Legislative Assembly meets in Berlin
May- All-German Frankfurt Assembly meets to draft constitution for a unified Germany
June- Thousands die in worker-army clashes in Parish
June-December- Counterrevolutionary forces regain control of Austrian Empire:
Bohemia, northern Italy, Hungary, Vienna
December- Louis Napoleon Bonaparte is elected president of French Republic
Francis Joseph becomes emperor of Austrian empire
1849- April- King Frederick William IV of Prussia rejects Frankfurt Assembly’s constitution &
offer of hereditary rule in a federal German state; Assembly dissolved
1850-1864- Taiping Rebellion in China is suppressed by Qing Dynasty; up to 20 million die
1850-1940- About 60 million people migrate from Europe
1852- Louis Napoleon Bonaparte becomes “Emperor Napoleon III” and establishes 2nd French Empire. Authoritarian government, but claimed it was in the interest of the people.
1853-1870- Baron Haussman supervises the modern rebuilding of Paris
1853- American Commodore Perry arrives in Yedo (Tokyo) Bay, “opening” Japan to foreign
commercial exchanges.
1854-1856- France and Britain (and later Austria-Hungary) join with Turkey to defeat Russia in
the Crimean War. Tsar Nicholas dies 1855; successor Alexander II sues for peace.
1855- Russia Tsar Nicholas dies; successor is Alexander II.
1856- Ottoman Empire launches reforms to modernize the legal and military system
1857- Gustave Flaubert publishes “Madame Bovary” (example of new realism affecting many
aspects of life)
“Indian Mutiny” threatens British control of India and leads to reforms in the imperial
administration
1859-1869- French company builds the Suez Canal
1859- Charles Darwin publishes “Origin of Species”; evolution becomes key theme in modern
intellectual life
1861-1865- Civil War in the U.S.
1861- Italians establish the unified Kingdom of Italy (except Venetia & Rome) following Italian
War of 1859 (Venetia added in 1866; Rome in 1870)
Tsar Alexander II abolishes serfdom in Russia
1862- Otto von Bismark appointed new chief minister of Prussia
1864- Napoleon III of France installs Austrian Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico
1867- Creation of the independent Dominion of Canada
Maximilian is overthrown; Benito Juarez returns as Mexican President
Bismark organizes a North German Confederation. Includes Prussia & 21 other states.
German states (including Austria) south of River Main remain independent.
1868- New Japanese emperor Mutsuhito begins the Meiji era; Japan enters process of rapid
economic and political change
1869- John Stuart Mill argues for women’s rights in “The Subjection of Women” (his wife,
Harriet Taylor, English feminist, helped)
Opening of Suez Canal in Egypt facilitates global trade
1870s- Western Europe & U.S. adopt the “gold standard” for global currency exchanges
1870- Prussia defeats France in brief war; Napoleon III abdicates and Parisians proclaim a
Third French Republic
1871- King Wilhelm of Prussia becomes emperor in newly established German Empire
The revolutionary Paris Commune is violently suppressed in France
1876- Abdul Hamid takes power as sultan in Ottoman Empire; repressive regime lasts 33 yrs.
1877-1878- Russo-Turkish War leads to Russian gains in the Balkans
1879- Germany signs military alliance with Austria-Hungary
1880s-1890s- Claude Monet portrays the nuances of light & color in Impressionist paintings
such as “Rouen Cathedral”
1885- Berlin Conference sets European terms for imperial control of Africa
Hindu Indian National Congress is organized to challenge British power in India
1890- Kaiser William II dismisses Bismark and begins to shape policies in German Empire
1894-1895- Japan goes to war with China and takes Formosa (later called Taiwan)
1894-1899- Dreyfus Affair bitterly divides republican and anti-republican factions in France
1894- France & Russia create the Franco-Russian alliance
Creation of Russian Marxist organization, the Social Democratic Party
1897- Theodor Herzl organizes the first international Zionist congress
1898- U.S. declares war on Spain & takes Cuba, Puerto Rico, & the Philippines
French & English forces come to brink of imperial conflict at Fashoda in Sudan
1899-1902- The Boer War enables Britain to consolidate power in S. Africa
1899- Chinese revolt against European powers, the “Boxer Uprising” is suppressed by
European forces
1900 (c.)- European population reaches its highest percentage of world population
1900- Sigmund Freud develops his theory of the unconscious mind in “The Interpr. of Dreams”
1903- Social Democrats split into two factions, Bolsheviks and Mensheviks; Lenin leads
Bolsheviks
1904-1905- Japan defeats Russia in Russo-Japanese War & expands into Manchuria
1904- France & Britain establish close relations in the entente cordiale
1905- Albert Einstein introduces the theory of relativity in physics
Germany challenges French-English relations by calling for Moroccan independence
from France
Jan.- Economic hardship, “Bloody Sunday,” & Russo-Japanese War spark Revolution
of 1905 in St. Petersburg
Oct.- Tsar’s “October Manifesto” establishes new parliamentary body, the Duma
1906-1911- Stolypin’s reforms promote growth of prosperous farmers (kaluks)
1906-1916- Liberal government in Britain introduces broad program of social welfare
1906- All-Indian Muslim League is organized to promote Indian nationalism and Muslim rights
1907- Pablo Picasso advances his new Cubist style of painting in works such as “Les
Demoiselles d’Avignon”
1911- Revolution in China ends Qing (Manchu) Dynasty
1912-1913- Two Balkan wars contribute to Serbian and Russian hostility toward Austria
1914- Opening of Panama Canal facilitates global trade in the Americas
Russia enters war with Germany and suffers crushing military defeats
June- Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand is assassinated by Bosnian terrorist in
Sarajevo
Aug.- Germany declares war on Russia and France; England declares war on Germany
Sept.- Battle of Marne stops German advance in France and leads to trench warfare on
the Western Front
1916- Battles of Verdun and the Somme confirm military stalemate in France
1917- March- Tsar Nicholas II abdicates; Russia becomes a republic under provisional
government and continues war with Germany
April- U.S. declares war on Germany
Germany provides safe passage for Bolshevik leaders to enter Russia
Nov.- Britain issues “Balfour Declaration,” promising support for a Jewish homeland
in Palestine
The Bolshevik Revolution: Lenin and followers overthrow the provisional
government in Petrograd
1918- Jan.- Bolsheviks dissolve Constituent Assembly & establish the Red Army
March- Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ends war between Russia and Germany
Nov.- Collapse of German & Austrian Empire
Armistice ends the fighting on the Western Front
1918-1920- Women gain the right to vote in Britain, Germany, & the U.S.
1918-1922- Bolsheviks consolidate power and suppress all opponents in Civil War & “Red Terror”
1919-1920- Creation of Third, or Communist, International (the Comintern)
1919- Gandhi launches campaign in India for independence from Britain
Jan.- Spartacist attempt at proletarian revolution is suppressed in Berlin
March- Western allies complete the Versailles Treaty, creasing new nations in eastern
Europe; Germany is charged w/ “war guilt” & reparations
July- Weimar Republic is established in Germany
1920- Treaty of Sevres breaks up the Ottoman Empire & leads to French and British “mandates”
in Middle East
1921-1927- New Economic Policy allows more independent commercial activity
1922- Establishment of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
Germany & the Soviet Union agree to diplomatic relations in Treaty of Rapollo
Britain recognizes the Irish Free State with dominion status; first step toward full
Sovereignty as Republic of Ireland
October- Mussolini takes power in Italy after the Fascist “March on Rome”
1923- French occupation of the Ruhr Valley and ruinous German inflation
Turkish Republic is established under the leadership of Kemal Ataturk, who launches
modernizing reforms
Nazis fail to mobilize political support during an attempted ‘Putsch’ in Munich
1924- First Labour government is elected in Britain under Ramsey MacDonald
1925-1927- Stalin prevails over Trotsky to take control of the Bolshevik Central Comm.
1925- Treaties at Locarno recognize the postwar European national borders
Reza Khan becomes shah of Iran and seeks to curb British & other foreign concessions
Death of Sun Yat-sen is followed by conflicts between Nationalists & Communists China
1928- Stalin launches the first Five-Year Plan for economic development
1929- Soviet regime beings the collectivization of agriculture; resistance from kulaks &
others leads to widespread repression and famine
Oct.- Stock market crash in New York leads to the Great Depression
1931-1932- Japanese forces expand control of Manchuria
1932-1939- Writers respond to social crisis with “social realism”
1932- Governments respond to economic crisis with national protectionism
1933- January- Hitler comes to power in Germany; Nazis soon take control of all state
Institutions and suppress opposition
March- Franklin D. Roosevelt introduces the “New Deal” in America to mitigate
economic effects of the Great Depression
1934-1935- Chinese communists make 6,000 mile Long March
1934- Right-wing and fascist groups in France challenge the Third Republic w/ riots during
The Stavisky Affair
1935- Nazis adopt Nuremburg laws against Jews
Mussolini launches an Italian invasion and conquest of Ethiopia
1936-1937- Public “purge trials” remove Old Bolsheviks from Communist Party; many are
executed or imprisoned
1936- Left-wing “Popular Front” comes to power in France under Leon Blum and enacts
notable social reforms
March- German troops enter Rhineland; France and Britain do not intervene
July- Fascist groups under General Franco in Spain rise against the Spanish Republic; Franco takes power after three-year Civil War.
1938- The Nazi regime encourages violent attacks on Jews and Jewish property during
‘Kristallnacht’- the night of “broken glass”
March- Hitler annexes Austria to Nazi Germany
Sept.- French and British leaders meet with Hitler in Munich and accept German takeover of Sudentenland in Czechoslovakia
1939- Aug.- Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact includes plan for division of Poland
Sept.- Nazi invasion of Poland begins the Second World War
1940- May-June- Nazis conquer the Netherlands, Belgium, and France
July- French collaborators set up a pro-fascist regime in Vichy
Sept.- German air attacks on Britain are repelled in Battle of Britain
1941- June- Germany launches massive invasion of the Soviet Union
Dec.- Japanese attack on U.S. Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor brings the U.S. into war with Japan and then Germany
1942- Jan.- Nazi leaders launch plans to build death camps for genocidal killing of European
Jews and others
1943- Feb.- Soviet forces defeat the Germans in decisive battle at Stalingrad
1944- June- Allied Armies open a “western front” in France after D-Day landings at Normandy
1945- The United Nations is established at a conference in San Francisco
Feb.- Churchill, Roosevelt, & Stalin agree on postwar arrangements at meeting in Yalta
May- Germany surrenders after Hitler commits suicide in Berlin
Sept.- Japan surrenders after the U.S. drops two atomic bombs and the Soviet Union
declares war on Japan
1946- U.S. grants independence to Philippines
1947- Secretary of State George C. Marshall announces U.S. plan to aid the rebuilding of Europe
Britain ends imperial rule in South Asia, partitioning the region into the two new nations
of India and Pakistan
1948-1949- American airlift of supplies sustains West Berlin during Soviet blockade
1948- Republic of Israel is established; Arab states go to war against Israel
Afrikaner Nationalist Party expands rigid racial segregation in South Africa through
apartheid laws
1949- The Soviet Union successfully tests an atomic bomb
Mao Zedong & the Communist party proclaim the People’s Republic of China
Indonesia wins independence from the Netherlands
1950-1953- Korean War demonstrates new American policy to “contain” communism
1953- Death of Stalin opens new era in Soviet and East European history
1954-1962- Algerian nationalists wage war for independence from France
1954- France withdraws from Indochina; two governments emerge in North and South Vietnam
1955- Leaders of 29 “new nations” meet in Bandung, Indonesia, and affirm “nonalignment” in
the Cold War
1956- Unsuccessful revolts against Soviet control in Poland and Hungary
Britain, France, & Israel attack Egypt after it nationalizes Suez Canal
1957- Six West-European nations establish a new Common Market for trade
Mao launches “Great Leap Forward” in China; leads to deadly famine
Ghana is the first British colony in Africa to win independence
1958- France establishes the Fifth Republic with Charles de Gaulle as president
1959-1961- Fidel Castro establishes Communist government in Cuba
1962- French war in Algeria ends with recognition of Algerian independence
1965- General Suharto overthrows Sukarno; begins 32-year rule in Indonesia
1966-1967- The “Cultural Revolution” creates disruptions throughout China
1967-1970- In Nigeria Ibo secession movement in Biafra is suppressed
1967- June- Six-Day War leads to Israel’s military occupation of Palestinian lands on West
Bank of Jordan River and the Gaza Strip
1970-1973- Leftist government in Chile; overthrown by coup and Pinochet dictatorship
1971- India helps Bangladesh gain independence from Pakistan
1974- India develops nuclear weapons
1976-1983- Dictatorship in Argentina represses leftist opposition
1979- Soviet Union invades Afghanistan and begins war with Muslim guerillas
1989- Soviets withdraw from Afghanistan; radical Muslim (Taliban) government follows
Military rulers in Burma repress dissent; nation is renamed Myanmar
1994- Mexican-U.S.-Canadian Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) goes into effect
1996-1999- Rising power of Indian People’s Party (BJP) fosters Hindu-based nationalism
1998- Pakistan detonates a nuclear bomb
General Suharto is ousted from power in Indonesia
Hugo Chavez becomes president of leftist government in Venezuela
2000- Vincente Fox is elected president of Mexico; ends 71 years of rule by Institutional
Revolutionary Party (PRI)
Mid 17th century- Eastern Europe divided into three weak empires (referenced above)
Holy Roman Empire after 1648- bore some of oldest traditions of Christendom, after Peace of Westphalia basically a group of individual countries w/ little to no allegiance to entity known as “Holy Roman Empire” Republic of Poland about 1650- made up of union of Poland & the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; population very heterogeneous. Polish aristocracy about 8% of population, each ruled their own lands like a little empire; weak central government made the distinction of country about worthless Ottoman Empire about 1650- Arabic (obviously). While originally fairly solidly organized, their allowance of allowing local populations to rule themselves according to their culture and tradition, combined with increasingly corrupt sultans led to weakening of Empire.
All three superseded by newer and strong powers:
***Prussia- after 1700, one of the two major powers that emerged out of Holy Roman Empire Ruled by the house of Brandenburg/Hohenzollern. Brandenburg worked ceaselessly to united small sections they owned & capture lands separating those sections. In 1701, negotiated title of King of Prussia from Holy Roman Emperor in return for supporting him in War of Spanish Succession. Prussian Military State guaranteed their continued dominance.
***Austria- after 1700, one of the two major powers that emerged out of Holy Roman Empire Ruled by the house of Austria/Hapsburg. Basically consisted of three parts: Upper and Lower Austria, kingdom of Bohemia (under crown of St. Wenceslas), and kingdom of Hungary (under crown of St. Stephen). Only thing holding them together was that the Austrian Habsburg dynasty held them all. 1713 Pragmatic Sanction agreed to undivided succession; when Charles VI died in 1740 & it fell apart.
***Russia- in century after 1650, the old stardom of Muscovy turned into modern Russia. Moved out from region around Moscow, entered into closer relationship w/ Europe. Like Prussia, the state developed as a means of supporting a modern army. The government developed autocratically, in conjunction with landlord class which was impressed into state service and which in turn held peasantry in serfdom. No commercial class of import. 1682-1725- Tsar Peter the Great, rapid Europeanization of Russia