A bride's price paid by the husband was often held in ancient times by the bride's family, even after the marriage.  The money was held in trust for the bride in case of abandonment, divorce, or widowhood.

Butter was loved even in ancient times!  Most of the butter used in the Bible is made from goat’s milk.  It was put in a skin bottle, which was shaken, swung, or squeezed until the butter was formed.

Due to Israel’s position on the globe, the seasons “don’t match” with those in the U.S. So, while some of us deal with snow in December, those in ancient (and current) Israel are planting grain. A tablet was found with the following “rhyme” on it (it was probably much better in the original, but we’re dealing with a rough translation):
The two months are olive harvest (September/October)
The two months are planting grain (November/December)
The two months are late planting (January/February)
The month is hoeing up of flax (March)
The month of barley harvest (April)
The month is harvest and festivity (May)
The two months are vine tending (June/July)
The month of summer fruit (August)

While we know the names of the months in the Hebrew calendar, the festivals, celebrations, etc.- there is one thing we don’t know.  Whether they started their year in the fall or spring!  There is evidence suggesting both, leaving scholars and laymen to guess from what knowledge we have.

Censuses were a common feature during Biblical times. Along with the census taken in the desert, David also later called a census. During Roman times, a census was taken every 14 years- the most well known being the one that required Joseph and Mary to return to Bethlehem.

Priests- The clothes of the priests were made of plain linen. The high priests’ clothing were passed on to his successor upon his death.

See also: "Phylacteries" & "Mezuzots"

Heifer, red- A red heifer was used in the ritual to purify those Israelites who had been defiled by touching a dead body.

Levites- In Biblical consecration rituals for the Levites, they were required to shave their entire bodies and wash their clothes to symbolize their absolute purity before the Lord.  Also, the High Priest was required to maintain clean and well-dressed hair and not tear his clothes in mourning (as other Israelites did), as he had been consecrated with the anointed oil. 

Levites- Moses applies blood to the right ear, thumb, and large toe of Aaron and his sons when they are being sanctified as priests to God. There are a couple of meanings that can be derived from this. The first is that the applying of the blood to the extremities symbolized the sanctification of the whole man just as the altar was sanctified by spreading on its outermost edges. Another is that the ears receive instructions, which the hands and feet execute.  (Source for today’s information: The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. 1990. Editors: R.E. Brown; J.A. Fitzmyer, S.J.; R.E. Murphy, O.Carm.)

Oil, uses- In order to consecrate something to God’s service, it was anointed with oil. The implements that were designed for use in the Temple were all anointed with oil in order to dedicate them to the Temple. People could also be consecrated- prophets, priests, and kings. They were anointed to separate them for service before God. The prophet spoke God’s words to the people, the priest stood before God representing his people, and the king established God’s laws throughout the land. A person who had been anointed had authority and was to be obeyed.   (From “Everyday Living: Bible Life and Times” (2006). Thomas Nelson, Inc. New York, NY.)

Uncleanness-  It was widely believed that “uncleanness” or “disfavor by God” as caused by demonic powers. The list of reasons given here is drastically different from the rules laid out by other religions (or cults) at the time. It also put forth the idea that uncleanness was a natural part of living. Everyone, in their natural lifestyle, would become unclean. It was only staying unclean- or staying separate from God and his laws- that was dangerous/sinful.

Vows-  Taking a vow for a certain period of time, dedicating oneself to God, was a common practice not only among the Jews, but among other religions of the time.  The shortest allowed period for a Nazarite vow was 30 days.

Historical Contracts-  The form and order of the covenant between God and the Israelites was much used during the 14th and 13th centuries B.C.  The same basic format: prologue, what is expected of each party, blessings and curses, etc. was used.  This helps place the book of Deuteronomy firmly during that time period.  If compiled later (as some scholars claim), it would be more likely to follow the treaty formats of that time. 

Who Was Pharaoh During the Exodus?
Despite the detail given in the Bible about Exodus, it neglects to give the Pharaoh a name. This is probably because with the oral tradition, there was no way that anyone was going to forget who the Pharaoh defeated at the Sea of Reeds (commonly translated as Red Sea) was!
Archeologists and theologians think that it was one of three Pharaohs: Ramses II, Thutmose III, or Amenhotep II.
The exodus is “guessed” at occurring around 1445 b.c. Ramses II reigned as Pharaoh during 1279-1213 b.c., much too late for the Exodus. However, the first signs of settlement in Israel occur during the early twelfth century, which corresponds to Ramses II’s reign.
Thutmose III was the father of Amenhotep II. Thutmose III’s reign, from 1479-1425 b.c., fits exactly with the guessed date of Exodus. Thutmose III was also known as a fierce warrior. But silence of his military victories later in his reign MAY be due to his defeat at the Sea of Reeds.
Amenhotep II was also a fierce warrior, and received tribute from as far away as Babylon. It was also recorded that at one time during his reign he invaded the area of Canaan. Not much is known about later in Amenhotep. The sudden silence about his military activities has caused many to speculate that this was because his army had been defeated by God in the Sea of Reeds. But this is pure speculation…nothing concrete has been found.

Golden Calf
Many people, when first reading this story, may think “Why in the world would they want to worship a calf? Or any animal for that matter?”
There is a very logical explanation for this. During this time in human history, many gods were represented by animals. Ra, an Egyptian god, was one of many that were depicted as part cat. Ammut and the solar god Horus (also of Egypt) were portrayed as crocodiles, either in part or whole. So, the Israelites had spent generations in a land that was one of many with “animal” gods, or more accurately, animal statues that represented the gods.
So, why a calf? Several of the most prominent Egyptian cults had a calf or bull as their statue. El, a common god in the Canaanite region, was referred to as the “heavenly bull” and depicted as such. Baal the storm god was another very popular god in the Canaanite region and beyond and was also depicted as a bull.
This, of course, doesn’t mean that the making of the golden calf as right, of course. However, it does explain why, when full of doubt and craving a “god” to “take care of them,” they turned to the familiar shape of a calf.

 Feast of Booths (also called Feast of Tabernacles or Sukkoth). This final feast was important as it was very close to two other important days in the Jewish year. The Feast of Booths took place on the fifteen day of the seventh month, which was called Tishri (equivalent to our late Sept. to early Oct.). Tishri had the Feast of Trumpets (first day of month), Day of Atonement (tenth day of month), and the Feast of Tabernacles (fifteenth day of month). For the Feast of Booths, people camped out in small huts for five days (day of atonement to first day of feast of booths) to recall the 40 years spent in the desert. This week was a time of final celebration and thanksgiving for the year's harvest.  A trip to Jerusalem was strongly recommended at this time.

Feast of Weeks (or Pentecost [Shavout]). This occurred seven weeks after Passover, and was a day of sacred assembly that required that no work be done. The primary focus of this festival was thankfulness to God (usually for the wheat harvest). There were detailed list of what be offered to God on behalf of the nation.  A trip to Jerusalem was strongly recommended at this time.

Jubilee Year- During the Jubilee Year, which occurred every 70 years, all property reverted back to the Israelite family who had originally owned it.  Land could be "sold" outside of the tribe, but only for the period until the next Jubilee.  This was to ensure an equality among the 12 tribes.

Passover- See "Passover"

Dream Interpretation- Dream interpretation was very important to almost every ancient culture.  The Babylonians and Egyptians both kept "dream books" in which sample dreams and their common interpretations were written down.

In many ancient cultures, women had the right to inherit property.  Of course, the circumstances varied with each country, civilization, and even towns sometimes.  In some cases, a married women could inherit part of her father’s estate, but it actually went to the man she was married to.  The man was referred to as having been “adopted” into the family.  In other cases, even an unmarried woman could inherit property and/or goods. 

See also: "Consecration, Sanctification, & Purification" & "Offerings"

Leaving some of the harvest behind was a common practice in ancient cultures. It was a way to “thank” the god of fertility (or land, or whatever…depending on culture) for the harvest. The Law allows the same practice, but gives a different reason for it. The gleanings were to be left for those who were poor or aliens in the land, turning this act of pagan worship into an act of charity.

In an Israelite court, contempt of court was a capital offense.  Contempt could be by a citizen (obviously), but also by a judge who was reluctant or refused to apply the proper penalty to a crime.

There were cities of refuge that those guilty of manslaughter could flee to.  One purpose was to avoid having the family of the slain kill the person who committed manslaughter.  Another purpose was that in these cities, there were judges who specifically determined what the punishment for manslaughter should be.  If death was given as a sentence, the person guilty would be handed over to the family of the slain for punishment.

The “giants” referred to in Numbers, chapter 13, have been a source of argument for centuries.  Some sources claim they were descendents of Cain (but have no explanation on how they survived the floor).  Others claim that they were the descendents of renegade angels who had fallen to earth and had “giant children.” 

_The Masoretic Text is the standard version of the Hebrew Old Testament as it exists today.  Until the sixth century A.D. only the consonants of the Hebrew OT were written down; the language contained no vowels.  The tradition of correct pronunciation of ancient Hebrew words was passed down orally.  Between A.D. 500 and 1000, a group of Jewish scholars known as the Masoretes (from maser- to hand down, transmit) developed a system of adding vowels, accents, and notes that guaranteed more accurate reading and copying of the ancient text.  No other text from the ancient world was as carefully safeguarded as the Masoretic Text.  Its tradition came to be regarded as authoritative and can still be considered highly trustworthy.  The Masoretes themselves date from the early Christian period until the Middle Ages
In existence today:
The earliest complete Masoretic manuscript, the Leningrad Codex (A.D. 1009) is used for the standard edition of the Hebrew Bible.
Another source states that the standard for Hebrew Bibles printed today is the Masoretic Text from A.D. 1088, currently housed in the Saint Petersburg Public Library.
Another ancient copy, although partially lost, is the Aleppo Codex (A.D. 925)
The founding of the Dead Sea Scrolls has shown amazing consistency between the Masoretic Text and the original scrolls, even though they are separated by 1,100 years.  This gives much credence to the idea that the Masoretic Text is a reliable copy that is faithful to the original meaning intended by the writers of the OT. 

In Deuteronomy 8-9, both phylacteries and mezuzots are mentioned.  Mezuzots are small containers- wooden or metal- in which passages of Scripture are placed.  These are then attached to the doorframes of their houses.

Cutting of one’s beard or hair was a common sign of mourning. Self-mutilation was also a sign of mourning in some culture/religious groups of the time.

The choosing of a name for a child was vitally important, as it is today.  Often, children’s names incorporated some part of the family’s religious deities’ name.  For example, some Assyrians worshipped Sin (yes, that was the name of a god, no pun intended).  An Assyrian king was named Sennacherib.  (note the ‘sin’ and ‘senn’).  In Israel, both Jonathan and Micah contain one of the syllables of “Yahweh.” 

Holding the position of a Judge was a highly respected occupation.  The original judges chosen by the people before the conquest, of course, died over time and were replaced.  Future judges, scholars, and lawyers (who were consulted on matters of the law) were also highly respected. 

Many ancient cultures offered sacrifices. While most believed that the food sacrifices were actual food that the gods needed, the Hebrews viewed the sacrifices as a “gift” to God. Offerings ranged all types of foods and drinks, with each culture having their own “sacred” sacrifices and foods/drinks that were forbidden.

Though there isn’t solid evidence, some scholars believe that honey was forbidden as a sacrifice to God (by the Israelites) because it was widely used in Canaanite cultic practices.

 Observance of the Passover was, of course, tied to the Israelites freedom from the ten plagues and their exodus from Egypt. The meal that was eaten on the Passover consisted of the following: a first-year lamb, selected on the tenth day and slaughtered on the evening of the fourteen day, was eaten roasted (not raw or boiled); bitter herbs; and unleavened bread.
The Passover was celebrated on the fourteenth day of the first month (called Ahib/ later Nisan, which spanned from late March to early April). For those who were unclean, it was celebrated exactly one month later.  Other sources say it took place on the tenth day of the first month. 
During this festival, a sacrificial lamb was slaughtered (all of the meat must be eaten on that one day according to custom).

The Pentateuch consists of the first five books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.  It is derived from the Greek "pentateuchos" meaning "five containers" or "five-volumed."  It enjoys particular prestige among Jews as the "Law" or "Torah," the concrete expression of God's will.  It also has the benefit of being containing five books that have NEVER had their canonicity called into question (by either Jews, Catholics, or Protestants).  The division of the material into five sections is supported by both the Septuagint, a 3rd century B.C. translation of the Hebrew Old Testament into Greek, as well as the Samaritan Pentateuch, which dates from even earlier. 

As for material, it contains: a body of legal doctrine, the formation of the People of God (Abraham and the patriarchs), Moses and the oppressed Hebrews in Egypt, the birth of Israel in the Sinai covenant, the journey to the promised land, and the "discourses" of Moses.  The time frame is from creation to the end of the Mosaic era. 

Many scholars divide/identify the material as coming from four major historical traditions/sources: Yahwist (J), Elohist (E), Priestly (P), and Deuteronomic (D).  This theory is called the "Documentary Hypothesis."  However, this is a simplification, and one that many scholars are now rejecting, due to the simple fact that all four of these "divisions" draw upon even older material from different sources (not just from four major sources), and that it ignores what we know of literary traditions of the time (for example, how stories would often be told from two or more points of view, even by the same author).  However, other scholars feel that modifying the initial hypothesis, not rejecting it outright, is the proper course of action.  By looking at the Pentateuch from the Documentary Hypothesis viewpoint, one can accept the fact that Moses was not the sole author of this entire section of the Bible, as previously believed.  It also gives us deeper insight in the meaning behind various verses if one can understand the background and viewpoint of that particular "author" or school of authorship.  It must be noted that more conservative scholars vehemently reject this theory, saying that it shows a complete misunderstanding of how early writings were passed on, and "rewrites the Bible" by forcing a 19th century and later editing process on material that is ancient.

Phylacteries are boxes made of animal skin (commonly leather) that is worn on the head and on the arm/hand area. They include four verses written on parchment, all of which remind them of the solemn covenant to God and their duties towards him.
The four verses are: Exodus 13:1-10, Exodus 13:11-14, Deuteronomy 6:4-9, and Deuteronomy 11:13-21.

The head phylactery has four compartments, one for each verse. The hand/arm phylactery has only one compartment, with all four verses written on one piece of paper.

The basis of this practice is found in all four verses, but can be summed up as such: “And it will be like a sign on your hand and a symbol on your forehead that the Lord brought us out of Egypt with his mighty hand.” (Exodus 13:16).

The plague of darkness, which we read about earlier, is assumed by many to have been a direct challenge to the main god of Egypt. The main god of Egypt at this time was Ra, the sun god.

Temple priestesses in other cultures often were given a portion of their father’s estate.  This provided financial support to the woman, allowing her to continue with her religious calling/duties.

The invisible God of the Israelites was very different from the gods of other cultures.  The images of Baal and Asherah were central to the religion of many in Canaan and surrounding regions.  Theriomorphic (part animal, part human) gods were prevalent in Egypt.  Astral cults were common in Assyria and/or Neo-Babylonian areas. 

“Since salt is also a necessary part of the daily diet, and salt was always used in sacrifices to the Lord (Lev 2:13), it was not long before people saw a connection between salt and covenant making.  To “eat salt with” a person meant to share his or her hospitality.  When covenants were made, they were usually confirmed with sacrificial means, at which salt was always present.”  Source: Note on Numbers 18:19. p. 221. Archaeological Study Bible. 2005. The Zondervan Corporation. Grand Rapids, MI.

In ancient times, a man's seal, cord, and staff were the symbols of his identity, much as a driver's license is today. 
Many seals are found in archeological sites, giving us outside verification of people that existed during certain times and places mentioned in the Bible.

_The Septuagint is the Greek translation of the Old Testament (both Hebrew and Aramaic), along with a number of noncanonical Greek works known by Protestant Christians as the Aprocrypha.  The title “Septuagint” is Latin for “seventy.”  Legend/tradition holds that 72 elders, working independently of one another, each produced an identical translation of the Hebrew Pentateuch into Greek around 285 B.C.  Originally designed for Greek-speaking Jews in Egypt, the Septuagint was completed by various translators in or around Alexandria between the third and first centuries B.C.

It came to have great authority among the non-Palestinian Jews, and allowed the Greeks to read the divine revelation in their own tongue.  The Bible of the early church, it is frequently quoted in the NT and by early church fathers.  It is still the official text of the Greek Church.  The Septuagint is organized in the following order: the Pentateuch, followed by the historical, poetic, wisdom, and prophetic books.  The order is loosely followed by our English translations.  Due to the fact that various translators at various times with varying capabilities and styles.

Tattooing was believed by pagans to protect the person against demons or evil spirits. It was also used to signify belonging to a certain social class, cult, or religion.

During multiple times throughout the history of Israel, it was tradition for the Torah to be read aloud once a year at the temple.  Since most of the "common people" couldn't read, this was the only time they could hear the entire Torah read aloud to them.  In addition, parts of the Torah were often read each week at the Synagogue.

Large numbers of quail do migrated across the Sinai Peninsula from Africa to Europe/Asia.  Quail have heavy bodies that do not fly well, and they partially depend upon the wind to help them on their way.  A wind that suddenly died down or blew in the wrong direction could easily have resulted in the many quail for the Israelites to eat.

Early human settlements usually occurred near naturally occurring springs or where a well could be sunk deep enough to get water.  The need for water determined where people would live.